UGANDA CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY –
MUKONO
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE : MA DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
COURSE UNIT : GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
LECTURER : DR KUKUNDA ELIZABETH BACWAYO.
NAMES : NATAMBA SHADRACK
REG.NO : RS09M13/503
DATE DUE : 01/11/09
Question: Explain the evolvement of the theories of Gender and Development from the 1970s to 2000.
The term 'gender' refers to the social construction of female and male identity. It can be defined as 'more than biological differences between men and women. It includes the ways in which those differences, whether real or perceived, have been valued, used and relied upon to classify women and men and to assign roles and expectations to them. The significance of this is that the lives and experiences of women and men, including their experience of the legal system, occur within complex sets of differing social and cultural expectations (Ministry of Women's Affairs, New Zealand) whereas “Development” according to Korten. D, (1990:67) is a process by which the members of a society increase their personal and institutional capacities to mobilize and manage resources to produce sustainable and justly distributed improvements in their quality of life consistent with their own aspirations. The above definition emphasizes the process of development and its essential focus on personal and institutional capacity.
Introduction:
During the past few years, the term "women in development" has become common currency both inside and outside academic settings. But while "women in development (WID), is understood to mean the integration of women into global processes of economic, political and social growth and change, the student begins by examining the origins, meanings and assumptions embedded in "WID" and "GAD", how WID entered the conversation of development and then the extent to which differing views of the relationship between gender and development have influenced research, policymaking and international agency thinking since 1970s up to date. It is suggested that each term has been associated with a varying set of assumptions and has led to the formulation of different strategies for the participation of women in development strategies.
Firstly the term “women in development” was coined in the early 1970s by a Washington-based network of female development professionals (Tinker, 1990:30). On the basis of their own experiences in overseas missions, they began to challenge trickle down theories of development, arguing that modernization was impacting differently on men and women. Instead of improving women’s rights and status, the development process appeared to be contributing to a wear and tear of their position. In particular, the work of the Danish economist, Esther Boserup was most significant in influencing WID. From the perspective of the WID movement, the importance of Boserup’s ‘Women’s Role in Economic Development’ (1970) was that it challenged the assumptions of the welfare approach and highlighted women’s importance to the agricultural economy. Boserup posited a positive correlation/relationship between the role women played in agricultural production and their status vis-à-vis men.
Tinker and Bramson (1976), argued that through massive expansion of education systems, stocks of well-trained workers and managers would emerge; this in turn would enable the evolution of static, essentially agrarian societies into industrialized and modernized ones. With the growth of the economies of these countries, the benefits of modernization, that is better living conditions, wages; education, adequate health services, etc. would "trickle down" to all segments of the society.
By the 1970s, this view of modernization was being questioned by many researchers. It was argued that the relative position of women had, in fact, improved very little over the past two decades. There was even evidence which suggested that the position of some women had declined (Boserup, 1970; Tinker and Bramson, 1976; Boulding, 1976; Kelly and Elliot, 1982). For example, in general, women were less likely to benefit from the course of educational expansion (Muchena 1982). Enrolment figures, especially at the tertiary level, tended to be lower for females.
Moser (1989) identifies five broad ideological approaches under the rubric of Women in Development (WID), each with its own implications for development policy and practice. Although Moser attempts to trace these approaches chronologically, she acknowledges that it would be misleading to view them as independent and exclusive of each other. In practice, many policies have appeared more or less simultaneously, appealing to different institutions for example, government, donor agencies, activists, non-governmental organisations and women’s groups. It will be useful to look at the range of approaches focusing on WID and make distinctions between the main categories and how each views women.
These ideological approaches include; the welfare, anti-poverty, equity, efficiency and empowerment. They are the Third World policy approaches to Women in Development (WID) whose goal is a more efficient and effective development through the integration of women in the development processes. They were formulated as a result of concern for the low income women needs on one hand and the recognition of their important role in the development process on the other. They are a reflection of changes in macro-level economic and social policy approaches to Third World development as well as in state policy towards women. The student examines these policy approaches in terms of their roles recognized, gender needs met (practical or strategic) and the extent to which participatory planning procedures are included on top of the origin and purpose of each approach as a basis on which we can draw the comparisons that exist between the five approaches and these are:
Welfare approach; is the earliest approach (pre-WID) that emerged in 1950s -70s and it is still most popular. It emerged out of the residual model of social welfare under the colonial system and the Women were seen as passive recipients of development and the major purpose was to bring women into development as better mothers. The key concerns of the welfare approach therefore include; Family physical survival and this was done through handouts like food aid given especially to low-income women in their mothering roles who are seen as the primary targets for improving family welfare particularly of children; Nutrition education; targeting children under five years as well as pregnant and nursing mothers. It was assumed that extra provision of food aid would make them better mothers, population control through family planning; which was assumed that limiting fertility through widespread dissemination of contraceptive knowledge and technology to women would reduce poverty. Finally, the approach assumes that motherhood is the most important role for women in Third World Countries thus its concern is to meet practical gender needs associated with women’s reproductive role and Identifies women rather than lack of resources as the problem and places the solution to family welfare in their hands and finally, it is based on a top down development approach which creates dependency rather than assisting them to become independent.
The World Bank has had an Advisor on Women in Development since the early 1970s, but in the mid-80s this office was expanded and given a higher profile within the Bank. A major focus of the expanded office during the 1980s has been on "Safe motherhood" under the argument that: "Improving maternal health helps involve women more effectively in development" (Herz and Measham 1987).
Unfortunately, the approach is not concerned about strategic gender needs (the needs women identify as a result of their subordinate position to men in the society and are related to gender divisions of labor, power and control such as legal rights, domestic violence, equal wages and control over their reproduction such as those which give women the mandate to have control over their reproduction).
The Equity Approach; the equity approach dates from the mid-1970s. It draws on research highlighting women’s significant economic contributions. The purpose of this approach was to gain equality for women in all spheres of life. The equity approach began on the promise that development had failed by ignoring productive (paid) roles of women. Often, the equity approach is referred to as the original WID approach (Buvinic, 1983; 1986). This approach recognizes that women are active participants in the development process. They can play both productive and reproductive roles and can contribute to economic growth. The approach starts with the basic assumption that economic strategies have frequently had a negative impact on women. It acknowledges that women need to be brought into the development process through access to employment and the market.
The Anti-poverty Approach; (often referred to as the second WID approach) stresses that the inequalities between men and women were linked to poverty and not simply the subordination of one sex by a more powerful other. It recognizes women as the ‘poorest of the poor’ and focuses on their productive roles, usually through small-scale income generation projects. Through the productive role of women, the approach focuses on poverty alleviation and the promotion of balanced economic growth of women in low-income households. Underlying this approach is the assumption that the origins of women’s poverty and inequality with men can be attributed to their lack of access to private ownership of land and capital, and sexual discrimination in the labour market. Consequently, this approach aims at employment and income generating options for women with low income through better access to productive resources.
Experience with the anti-poverty approach has shown that income generating programmes have tended to be small scale and have not questioned who controls income within the family. Further, since it was based on the assumption that women have free time they have often ignored women’s productive roles and this has been the cause of additional work. Anti-poverty income generating projects may provide employment for women and thereby meet practical gender needs. But unless employment leads to greater autonomy/independence, it does not meet strategic gender needs. This is the indispensable/essential difference between the equity and anti-poverty approaches.
The Efficiency Approach; its emphasis has shifted from women towards development on the assumptions that increased participation of women is automatically linked with increased equity. The deteriorating economic conditions prevalent in the 1980s and emergence of its structural adjustment programme resulted in the initiation of this approach, which focuses on productive roles of women as an underutilized resource for development. Efficiency approach relies heavily on the elasticity of women’s labour in both the reproductive and community managing roles and only meets practical gender needs at the cost of longer working hours and increased unpaid work. While this approach is pragmatic, it can be seen as an entry point for women to redefine the development agenda.
The Empowerment Approach; It emerged in 1970s but gained in 1980s and its origin lies on the grass-roots of organisational experience and feminist writings of women from the developing world. The major proponents of this approach are the Third World women. It is the most recent and still less recognized. It describes empowerment as increasing the capacity of women to develop their self-reliance in order to identify problems, development and change. Since then the word empowerment has become popular in development and social change and refers to the form of processes which leads to participation. It links women subordination not only to male dominance but also to colonial and neo-colonial oppression. It recognizes women’s triple roles and seeks to meet strategic gender roles in a bottom-up manner of mobilization around practical gender needs. It is still unpopular except with Third World women NG0s and their supporters. It is said to have emerged because of the dissatisfaction with the equity approaches perceived co-option with anti-poverty and efficiency approaches. This approach acknowledges inequalities between men and women and the family as the source of women’s subordination. It also attributes women oppression to factors like race, class, colonial history and current position in the international economic order and stresses that women should work to challenge these oppressive factors. Compared to equity approach, It acknowledges the need for power for women only mainly for purposes of enhancing their capacity to increase their own self reliance and internal strength and not for dominance; to give them the right or ability to determine choices in life and to influence the direction of change through the ability to gain control over crucial and non material resources.
According to Buvinic (1983), the shift in policies from welfare, to equity, to anti-poverty and finally to efficiency and empowerment reflect the general Third World development policy trends from policies such as modernization characterized by accelerated growth to basic needs characterized by growth with redistribution and to policy measures associated with structural adjustment policies.
Because the socialist feminists identified social construction of production and reproduction as the basis of women's oppression, there came a need to focus their attention to the social relations of gender, and the question on the validity of roles which were endorsed to both women and men in different societies led to Gender and Development approach. This approach emerged in the 1980s as an alternative to the earlier WID focus. It finds its theoretical roots in socialist feminism and has bridged the gap left by the modernization theorists, linking the relations of production to the relations of reproduction and taking into account all aspects of women's lives (Jaquette 1982).
Kate Young (1987) has identified some of the key aspects of the GAD approach. Perhaps most significantly, the GAD approach starts from a holistic perspective, looking at "the totality of social organization, economic and political life in order to understand the shaping of particular aspects of society" (Young 1987: 2). GAD is not concerned with women per se but with the social construction of gender and the assignment of specific roles, responsibilities and expectations to women and to men. In contrast to the emphasis on exclusively female solidarity which is highly prized by radical feminists, the GAD approach welcomes the potential contributions of men who share a concern for issues of equity and social justice (Ben and crown 1987).
It analyses the nature of women's contribution within the context of work done both inside and outside the household, including non-commodity production, and rejects the public/private dichotomy which commonly has been used as a mechanism to undervalue family and household maintenance work performed by women. Both the socialist/feminist and GAD approaches give special attention to the oppression of women in the family and enter the so-called "private sphere" to analyze the assumptions upon which conjugal relationships are based. GAD also puts greater emphasis on the participation of the state in promoting women's emancipation, seeing it as the duty of the state to provide some of the social services which women in many countries have provided on a private and individual.
The approach sees women as, agents of change rather than passive recipients of development and it stresses the need for women to organize themselves for more effective political voice. It also recognizes the importance of both class solidarities and class distinctions but it argues that the beliefs of patriarchy operate within and across classes to oppress women.
Some governments like Uganda and NGOs are fronting GAD perspective in order to strengthen women's legal rights, including the reform of inheritance and land laws. Research also is examining the confusions created by the co-existence of customary and statutory legal systems in many countries and the tendency for these to have been manipulated by men to the disadvantage of women for instance in Uganda the Domestic relations Bill was tabled and passed as a law to protect women’s rights in marriage.
Gender mainstreaming; is a way or process of ensuring that men’s and women’s constraints, needs, potentials and capabilities are incorporated in the development policies, processes and strategies at all stages including planning, implementation and evaluation ( Kyasiimire C 2003:3).
The approach considers why gender analysis is integral to the policy and program process and incorporates women’s views and priorities into the core of policy decisions, institutional structures, and resource allocations. It is the conceptualizing stage of a gender management system. It recognizes the need not just to ‘add-in’ gender, but to challenge the status quo so that these issues are not marginalized and/or ignored (Schalkwyk et al., 1996). A mainstreaming approach assumes that virtually all policies and programs have the potential for differential impacts on men and women, not just ‘women’s issues’. Moreover, a mainstreaming approach assumes that gender analysis is central/fundamental to the policy and program processes and results in changes that ‘add value’ to these processes. A mainstreaming approach should not marginalize differential gender impacts.
It is important that the core policy decisions, institutional structures, and resource allocations should incorporate women’s views and priorities. For instance; the government of Uganda has set up an environment that promotes gender mainstreaming for example; The Constitution of Uganda contains the gender related provisions like Chapter 4 talks about Protection and Promotion of Fundamental and other Human Rights and Freedoms article 21. (1) All persons are equal before and under the law in all spheres of Political, economic, social and cultural life and in every other respect and shall enjoy equal respect of the law, (2) Without prejudice to clause (1) of this article, a person shall not be discriminated against on the ground of sex, race, colour, ethnic origin, tribe, birth, creed or religion, or social or economic standing, political opinion or disability.
Secondly, Affirmative action in Favour of Marginalized groups Article 32. (1) Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, the state shall take affirmative action in favour of groups marginalized on the basis of gender, age, disability or any other reason created by history, tradition or custom, for the purpose of redressing the imbalances which exist against them. (2) Parliament shall make relevant laws, including laws for the establishment of an equal opportunities commission, for the purpose of giving full effect to clause (1) of this article. And in Article 33. (1) Women shall be accorded full and equal dignity of the person with men. (2) The state shall provide the facilities and opportunities necessary to enhance the welfare of women to enable them to realise their full potential and advancement. (3) The state shall protect women and their rights, taking into account their unique status and natural maternal functions in society. (4) Women shall have the right to equal treatment with men and that right shall include equal opportunities in political, economic and social activities (5) Without prejudice to article 32 of this Constitution, women shall have the right to affirmative action for the purpose of redressing the imbalances created by history, tradition or custom. (6) Laws, cultures, customs or traditions which are against the dignity, welfare or interest of women or which undermine their status are prohibited by the Constitution.
Uganda’s Ministry of Gender and Community Development National Gender Policy; Uganda’s National Gender Policy aims at guiding, and directing planning, resource allocation and implementation of development programmes in such a way that emphasizes a gender perspective. It also states that sustainable development necessitates maximum and equal participation of both men and women in economic, political, civil and cultural development.
In conclusion, it should be noted that none of these approaches can work independently and meet all women’s needs and concerns. In most cases, it takes a combination of the efforts of all the above because much as we may assume that women’s needs are the same throughout all societies, we must recognize that there are differences based on context, interests, culture among others. Gender as a concept is difficult to operationalise unless it is grounded in values. Established male dominance and cultural traditional beliefs and attitudes compound the problem. The positive constitutional and legal provisions not withstanding, gender in Uganda is still largely perceived by many sections of society as an elite affair. Some perceive it as one of those social concepts driven by foreign ideas of feminism that have not been contextualized locally.
Reference:
Beneria, Lourdos and Gita son. 1981. "Accumulation, Reproduction, and women's Role in Economic Development." In Signs 7, no. 3.
Boserup E. Women’s Role in Economic Development, St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1970.
Buvinic, Mayra. 1986. "Projects for women in the Third World: Explaining their Misbehavior." World Development 14, no. 5.
Constitution of the Republic of Uganda 1995, p. 20.
Jaquette, Jane S. 1982. "Women and Modernization Theory: A Decade of Feminist Criticism." In World Politics 34, no-2.
Kyasiimire C 2003. Best Practices in Community Participation and Gender Mainstreaming: Literature Review and Documentation.
Moser, C.O.N. Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice and Training, Routledge, London, 1993
Razavi Shahrashoub and Carol Miller; From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse. UNRISD. Geneva, 1995, p. 12.
The Republic of Uganda, The National Gender Policy, Ministry of Gender and Community Development, Kampala, 1997 p.1.
Tinker, Irene and M.B. Bramson (1976); Women and Development. Washington, D.C.: overseas Development Council.
Young, Kate. 1987. "Gender and Development." Notes for a Training Course on Gender and Development sponsored by the Aga Khan Foundation, Toronto
Tuesday, April 13, 2010
The irrelevence of Development studies by Yosa
This was discussed by Ms Immaculate Yosa and Posted by shadrack Natamba
The irrelevance of development studies.
Approach:
Define/explain your understanding of the term development and of one or two scholars/writers.
Define/explain your understanding of the term development studies and of one or two scholars/writers.
Briefly in a line or two make mention of how the whole issue of ‘development studies’ came to play.
Begin discussion by citing areas of irrelevance.
Cite a few areas of relevance.
Conclude.
Development:
It is a slow and uneven process.
People’s control over the forces which shape their lives (Michael Edwards, 1989, the irrelevance of development studies, third world quarterly)
There can be no fixed and final definition of development, only suggestions of what development should imply in particular contexts. Thus to a large extent development is contextually defined and should be an open ended concept to be constantly redefined as our understanding of the process deepens and as new problems to be solved by ‘development’ emerge. (Hettne, 1994; the research territory, Development theory and the three worlds)
Development studies.
All forms of writing and talking about development as well as forms of action such as training and even project work which grow out of these processes. (Michael Edwards, 1989, the irrelevance of development studies, third world quarterly)
It is problem oriented, concerned with the global disparities in material resources, the social consequences of this situation in different societies and political strategies to change it.
It is interdisciplinary thus dependent on monodisciplinary work in other disciplines such as economics,sociology,political science,anthropology,history and a few science disciplines as well. (Hettne, 1994; the research territory, Development theory and the three worlds)
Most development theorists emerged after WWII.Its after that time that the world came to the realization of the dire need that most countries where in especially in the third world thereby emerging a group of people who prescribed solutions for these countries which once embarked on would improve their situation and thus ‘develop’.
Areas that suggest irrelevance of the study of Development studies.
- Conventional approaches to development and their failure to solve the problems they seek to address. Development studies are still largely based largely on traditional ‘banking’ concepts that embody a series of attitudes that contribute to the irrelevance of much of their output to the problems of the world in which we live. People are treated as objects to be studied rather than subjects of their own development. Research and education has come to be dominated by content rather than form or method thereby becoming processes which focus on the transmission of information usually from one person to another. The most extreme example of this process is the empirical questionnaire based survey designed, analysed and controlled by people outside the community which is being studied.
- Experts and their devaluation of popular knowledge and their love for projects. The idea that development consists of a transfer of skills or information creates a role for the expert as the only person capable of mediating the transfer of these skills from one person or society to another. This serves as justification for the number of experts who flock the south in the name of transferring information and skills to develop the third world. The educated elites too just mimic from the so called expatriates from the north without learning a thing or two about trial and error such that even their exit, they could sustain programs in their own countries. In all sectors of development, the adoption of problem solving approaches is much more important than communicating particular packages of technical information. a system of education and training that relies on experts will never be able to change much of the status quo because the attitudes of the expert prevent people from thinking for themselves. Development is about the process of enrichment empowerment and participation which the technocratic, project oriented view of the world simply cannot accommodate.
- Additionally, the consequence of the predominant technical view of development is the devaluation of indigenous knowledge which grows out of the direct experience of poor people in the search for solutions to the problems that face us. This is inevitable if knowledge is associated with formal education and training. Indigenous knowledge is relegated to subordinate positions. The result is that general solutions manufactured from the outside are offered to specific problems which are highly localized.
- Refusal to accept the role of emotion in understanding the problems of developement.it is impossible to understand the real life problems fully unless we can grasp the multitude of constraints, imperfections and emotions that shape the actions and decisions of real of real living people. People often act on issues about which they have strong feelings. So all education and development projects should start by identifying the issues which local people speak about with excitement,hope,fear,anxiety or anger if ‘development’ is to be relevant to the people it is intended for.
- Conventional approaches to development studies embody certain values and mindsets which act as a barrier to the genuine understanding of issues and problems.i.e modernity, quantification, prediction, tidiness etc vis-à-vis traditional, nonquantifiable, unpredictable and messy. The mismatch between these two sets of preferences results in a series of biases in the perceiver that obscure a real understanding of the situation at a hand. This is coupled with humility on the part of the researcher which many lack. It is the absence of humility that places many academics in attitudes of self appointed superiority over people who are more directly involved in practical development work. The first essential step toward greater relevance in development studies is to change the way we think and act so that we become able to listen and to learn from below.
- Monopoly of knowledge and the control of power:-The field of development studies is dominated by the north and to a lesser extent by the third world elites whom we have trained and sponsored. The journals and books they publish are not only expensive but the materials they have are inapplicable to the problems of the third world and irrelevant because of the bias and misconceptions that form the subject matter. This is no different from the third world elites who in a bid to change and challenge the north haven’t done much to solve the barriers the north and their education and training create. For instance they over emphasize the acquisition of technical skills and yet fail to challenge the prejudices which prevent people from learning from below.(cite relevant examples)
- The growth of participatory research networks throughout the third world may be encouraging but on ground it shows a lot still has to be done. Popular participation is accepted as the only real basis for successful development. In reality however, the practice of development studies continues to be anti-participatory. The contradiction shows itself in the advocacy of participation by writers who do not allow the subjects of their research to participate and by development agencies who parrot the virtues of participation while telling their partners in the third world what to do and how to do it. .(cite relevant examples)
- Majority of the areas which suggest the reason to mark development studies as being irrelevant is simple inequality of power between north and south. The north and them being monopolies over reaserch, academics and control over the funding of development work coz they have all the resources for all. However, power is a central component of development and without it there is little that the poor can do to change their circumstances.centrailsed control over development studies is therefore directly anti developmental in its effects.i.e it undermines local self confidence and prevents the transformation of people into agents of their own development by retarding the sharing of knowledge and information.
- The famous inscription on Karl Marx’s gravestone in highgate cemetery London poses a dichotomy which is central to the irrelevance of much development thinking today. Marx emphasized that changing the world rather than understanding or interpreting it is the prime task of the revolutionary. Conventional approaches to development studies posit the opposite view.undetsdatning must precede the ability to effect change. Problem with much in development studies today is that they are divorced completely from the practical processes of change. We cannot change the world successfully unless we understand the way it works; but neither can we understand the world fully unless we are involved in some way with the processes that change it.Developement cannot be ‘studied’ at all; we can participate in the processes that underlie development and observe, record, analyse what we see but we can never be relevant to the problems in the abstract. Our tendency to separate the processes of understanding and change naturally leads to irrelevance b’se while abstract research cannot be applied in practice; practice is often deficient because it fails to understand the real causes and character of the problems it seeks to address.
- Researchers getting tired and getting new solutions
- Policies which have failed.
- Uncovered solutions to problems
The irrelevance of development studies.
Approach:
Define/explain your understanding of the term development and of one or two scholars/writers.
Define/explain your understanding of the term development studies and of one or two scholars/writers.
Briefly in a line or two make mention of how the whole issue of ‘development studies’ came to play.
Begin discussion by citing areas of irrelevance.
Cite a few areas of relevance.
Conclude.
Development:
It is a slow and uneven process.
People’s control over the forces which shape their lives (Michael Edwards, 1989, the irrelevance of development studies, third world quarterly)
There can be no fixed and final definition of development, only suggestions of what development should imply in particular contexts. Thus to a large extent development is contextually defined and should be an open ended concept to be constantly redefined as our understanding of the process deepens and as new problems to be solved by ‘development’ emerge. (Hettne, 1994; the research territory, Development theory and the three worlds)
Development studies.
All forms of writing and talking about development as well as forms of action such as training and even project work which grow out of these processes. (Michael Edwards, 1989, the irrelevance of development studies, third world quarterly)
It is problem oriented, concerned with the global disparities in material resources, the social consequences of this situation in different societies and political strategies to change it.
It is interdisciplinary thus dependent on monodisciplinary work in other disciplines such as economics,sociology,political science,anthropology,history and a few science disciplines as well. (Hettne, 1994; the research territory, Development theory and the three worlds)
Most development theorists emerged after WWII.Its after that time that the world came to the realization of the dire need that most countries where in especially in the third world thereby emerging a group of people who prescribed solutions for these countries which once embarked on would improve their situation and thus ‘develop’.
Areas that suggest irrelevance of the study of Development studies.
- Conventional approaches to development and their failure to solve the problems they seek to address. Development studies are still largely based largely on traditional ‘banking’ concepts that embody a series of attitudes that contribute to the irrelevance of much of their output to the problems of the world in which we live. People are treated as objects to be studied rather than subjects of their own development. Research and education has come to be dominated by content rather than form or method thereby becoming processes which focus on the transmission of information usually from one person to another. The most extreme example of this process is the empirical questionnaire based survey designed, analysed and controlled by people outside the community which is being studied.
- Experts and their devaluation of popular knowledge and their love for projects. The idea that development consists of a transfer of skills or information creates a role for the expert as the only person capable of mediating the transfer of these skills from one person or society to another. This serves as justification for the number of experts who flock the south in the name of transferring information and skills to develop the third world. The educated elites too just mimic from the so called expatriates from the north without learning a thing or two about trial and error such that even their exit, they could sustain programs in their own countries. In all sectors of development, the adoption of problem solving approaches is much more important than communicating particular packages of technical information. a system of education and training that relies on experts will never be able to change much of the status quo because the attitudes of the expert prevent people from thinking for themselves. Development is about the process of enrichment empowerment and participation which the technocratic, project oriented view of the world simply cannot accommodate.
- Additionally, the consequence of the predominant technical view of development is the devaluation of indigenous knowledge which grows out of the direct experience of poor people in the search for solutions to the problems that face us. This is inevitable if knowledge is associated with formal education and training. Indigenous knowledge is relegated to subordinate positions. The result is that general solutions manufactured from the outside are offered to specific problems which are highly localized.
- Refusal to accept the role of emotion in understanding the problems of developement.it is impossible to understand the real life problems fully unless we can grasp the multitude of constraints, imperfections and emotions that shape the actions and decisions of real of real living people. People often act on issues about which they have strong feelings. So all education and development projects should start by identifying the issues which local people speak about with excitement,hope,fear,anxiety or anger if ‘development’ is to be relevant to the people it is intended for.
- Conventional approaches to development studies embody certain values and mindsets which act as a barrier to the genuine understanding of issues and problems.i.e modernity, quantification, prediction, tidiness etc vis-à-vis traditional, nonquantifiable, unpredictable and messy. The mismatch between these two sets of preferences results in a series of biases in the perceiver that obscure a real understanding of the situation at a hand. This is coupled with humility on the part of the researcher which many lack. It is the absence of humility that places many academics in attitudes of self appointed superiority over people who are more directly involved in practical development work. The first essential step toward greater relevance in development studies is to change the way we think and act so that we become able to listen and to learn from below.
- Monopoly of knowledge and the control of power:-The field of development studies is dominated by the north and to a lesser extent by the third world elites whom we have trained and sponsored. The journals and books they publish are not only expensive but the materials they have are inapplicable to the problems of the third world and irrelevant because of the bias and misconceptions that form the subject matter. This is no different from the third world elites who in a bid to change and challenge the north haven’t done much to solve the barriers the north and their education and training create. For instance they over emphasize the acquisition of technical skills and yet fail to challenge the prejudices which prevent people from learning from below.(cite relevant examples)
- The growth of participatory research networks throughout the third world may be encouraging but on ground it shows a lot still has to be done. Popular participation is accepted as the only real basis for successful development. In reality however, the practice of development studies continues to be anti-participatory. The contradiction shows itself in the advocacy of participation by writers who do not allow the subjects of their research to participate and by development agencies who parrot the virtues of participation while telling their partners in the third world what to do and how to do it. .(cite relevant examples)
- Majority of the areas which suggest the reason to mark development studies as being irrelevant is simple inequality of power between north and south. The north and them being monopolies over reaserch, academics and control over the funding of development work coz they have all the resources for all. However, power is a central component of development and without it there is little that the poor can do to change their circumstances.centrailsed control over development studies is therefore directly anti developmental in its effects.i.e it undermines local self confidence and prevents the transformation of people into agents of their own development by retarding the sharing of knowledge and information.
- The famous inscription on Karl Marx’s gravestone in highgate cemetery London poses a dichotomy which is central to the irrelevance of much development thinking today. Marx emphasized that changing the world rather than understanding or interpreting it is the prime task of the revolutionary. Conventional approaches to development studies posit the opposite view.undetsdatning must precede the ability to effect change. Problem with much in development studies today is that they are divorced completely from the practical processes of change. We cannot change the world successfully unless we understand the way it works; but neither can we understand the world fully unless we are involved in some way with the processes that change it.Developement cannot be ‘studied’ at all; we can participate in the processes that underlie development and observe, record, analyse what we see but we can never be relevant to the problems in the abstract. Our tendency to separate the processes of understanding and change naturally leads to irrelevance b’se while abstract research cannot be applied in practice; practice is often deficient because it fails to understand the real causes and character of the problems it seeks to address.
- Researchers getting tired and getting new solutions
- Policies which have failed.
- Uncovered solutions to problems
qualitative Vs quantitative by Shadrack
Question: Illustrating with examples, distinguish between qualitative and quantitative approaches to research. Explain the value of the mixed methods approach.
Approach:
Define the key terms-research, qualitative, and quantitative approach.
Differences between qualitative and quantitative
The value of the mixed methods approach.
Research; is taking another step forward is searching for the unknown. Someone else has searched and explained some phenomenon, and you are adding on what is already known.
A qualitative "approach" is a general way of thinking about conducting qualitative research. It describes, either explicitly or implicitly, the purpose of the qualitative research, the role of the researcher(s), the stages of research, and the method of data analysis.
A qualitative approach: This approach promotes greater understanding of not just the way things are, but also why they are the way they are. Through intensive and extensive observation, interviews and discussions, the qualitative researcher seeks to derive and describe findings that promote greater understanding of how and why people behave the way they do. It explains and gains insight and understanding of phenomena through intensive collection of narrative data (Martin E. Amin, 2005).
In this approach, data collected is subjective and the main measurement tool for collecting data is the investigator him/herself (Martin E. Amin, 2005), therefore a need for an intensive training and practice in the methods to be used if one is to conduct an effective research. Its data is basically descriptive in nature.
A quantitative approach: On the other hand however, this appraoch deals with numbers. Quantitative research involves the collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict and control phenomena of interest, data analysis being more statistical (Martin E. Amin, 2005). It involves collecting data in order to test hypotheses or answer questions concerning the current status of the subject of the study.
Quantitative research is the sort of scientific research with which you are probably most familiar. There are a strict set of rules that govern the use of such research. Knowledgeable methodologists can evaluate the quality of such research and point out weaknesses in it.
Quantitative research is probably the least contentious of the two schools, as it is more closely aligned with what is viewed as the classical scientific paradigm. Quantitative research involves gathering data that is absolute, such as numerical data, so that it can be examined in as unbiased a manner as possible. There are many principles that go along with quantitative research, which help promote its supposed neutrality. Quantitative research generally comes later in a research project, once the scope of the project is well understood.
The main idea behind quantitative research is to be able to separate things easily so that they can be counted and modeled statistically, to remove factors that may distract from the intent of the research. A researcher generally has a very clear idea what is being measured before they start measuring it, and their study is set up with controls and a very clear blueprint. Tools used are intended to minimize any bias, so ideally are machines that collect information, and less ideally would be carefully randomized surveys. The result of quantitative research is a collection of numbers, which can be subjected to statistical analysis to come to results.
Remaining separate from the research emotionally is a key aspect of quantitative research, as is removing researcher bias. For things like astronomy or other hard sciences, this means that quantitative research has a very minimal amount of bias at all. For things like sociological data, this means that the majority of bias is hopefully limited to that introduced by the people being studied, which can be somewhat accounted for in models. Quantitative is ideal for testing hypotheses, and for hard sciences trying to answer specific questions.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is a much more subjective form of research, in which the researchers allow themselves to introduce their own bias to help form a more complete picture. Qualitative research may be necessary in situations where it is unclear what exactly is being looked for in a study, so that the researcher needs to be able to determine what data is important and what isn’t. While quantitative research generally knows exactly what it’s looking for before the research begins, in qualitative research the focus of the study may become more apparent as time progresses.
Often the data presented from qualitative research will be much less concrete than pure numbers as data. Instead, qualitative research may yield stories, or pictures, or descriptions of feelings and emotions. The interpretations given by research subjects are given weight in qualitative research, so there is no seeking to limit their bias. At the same time, researchers tend to become more emotionally attached to qualitative research, and so their own bias may also play heavily into the results.
Qualitative research methods are most often utilized in fields such as anthropology, the humanities and sociology, although each of these fields can be studied through quantitative methods as well. Since qualitative research is exploratory and focuses on discerning the why of things, such as human behavior, rather than the what of the natural world, it is often criticized for being too subjective. Many make the counter-argument, however, that since qualitative methods are hypothesis generating, they are not only just as valuable as quantitative methods but necessary for the production of theoretical models which come to inform the direction of quantitative research methods.
Data collection and analysis is another way that quantitative and qualitative research differ. In qualitative research, data samples are usually not collected through random selection but rather purposive reasoning, which is to say they are chosen for how well they typify/demonstrate the characteristics of a certain class. For example, a qualitative research study on racial inequality will not likely concern itself with affluent/rich minorities or the entire population of a minority, but rather, it might focus on depressed areas where minorities are most prevalent. This approach is chosen because qualitative researchers are not concerned with discerning the quantity of people in a minority class, but rather the quality of life for minorities who are affected by inequality.
The researcher's role in interpreting the meaning of data is more centralized in the qualitative approach than it is in quantitative methods, which ideally seek to make purely empirical observations devoid of perspective. In sharp contrast, qualitative researchers must reflect upon their research and make the reasoning behind the interpretations of their data explicit in their analysis.
Qualitative research is thought especially valuable in circumstances where quantitative data does not account for a particular phenomenon. For example, while economics frequently concerns itself with collecting concrete information, like statistics and financial data, it can be said to be flawed because it ignores the humanistic and psychological aspects of the people that are a key component. This human component requires a qualitative understanding, which leads to the development of such concepts as "consumer confidence."
An important variable to consider when analyzing the dependability of qualitative research is validity. It is important to consider how a conclusion was reached, and whether it really represents a dependable and realistic interpretation of its subject. It may or may not be pertinent to ask whether or not a conclusion is reproducible, or whether it was affected by bias. One should also consider whether data from qualitative research is well reasoned and the extent to which it accounts for a substantial majority of the available data.
The Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Qualitative Quantitative
The aim is a complete, detailed description. The aim is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.
Researcher may only know roughly in advance what he/she is looking for. Researcher knows clearly in advance what he/she is looking for.
Recommended during earlier phases of research projects. Recommended during latter phases of research projects.
The design emerges as the study unfolds. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
Researcher is the data gathering instrument. Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or equipment to collect numerical data.
Data is in the form of words, pictures or objects. Data is in the form of numbers and statistics.
Subjective - individuals’ interpretation of events is important ,e.g., uses participant observation, in-depth interviews etc. Objective – seeks precise measurement & analysis of target concepts, e.g., uses surveys, questionnaires etc.
Qualitative data is more 'rich', time consuming, and less able to be generalized. Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail.
Researcher tends to become subjectively immersed in the subject matter. Researcher tends to remain objectively separated from the subject matter.
Main Points to note
Qualitative research involves analysis of data such as words (e.g., from interviews), pictures (e.g., video), or objects (e.g., an artifact).
Quantitative research involves analysis of numerical data.
The strengths and weaknesses of qualitative and quantitative research are a perennial/permanent, hot debate, especially in the social sciences. The issues invoke classic 'paradigm war'.
The personality / thinking style of the researcher and/or the culture of the organization is under-recognized as a key factor in preferred choice of methods.
Overly focusing on the debate of "qualitative versus quantitative" frames the methods in opposition. It is important to focus also on how the techniques can be integrated, such as in mixed methods research. More good can come of social science researchers developing skills in both realms than debating which method is superior.
Unlike the non-survey types of research, these are based on numbers, and the conclusions are based on the frequencies of each category.
Thus qualitative ‘measures’ are often binary in that they are interested in the presence or absence of phenomena, or they work implicitly with simple scales (e.g. How much conversation or laughter or aggression or mutual touching in
a particular interaction?). Primarily qualitative research seeks to understand and interpret the meaning of situations or events from the perspectives of the people involved and as understood by them. It is generally inductive rather than deductive in its approach, that is, it generates theory from interpretation of the evidence, albeit against a theoretical background While Quantitative research places the emphasis on measurement when collecting and analysing data. Quantitative research is defined, not just by its use of numerical measures but also that it generally follows a natural science model of the research process measurement to establish objective knowledge (that is, knowledge that exists independently of the views and values of the people involved).
Methods of qualitative research include: Data management, Aims/analysis objectives, Sampling design Data collection Data analysis while Methods of data collection in quantitative research include: surveys (questionnaires), structured interviewing, structured observation, secondary analysis and official statistics, content analysis according to a coding system, quasi-experiments (studies that have some of the characteristics of experimental design) classic experiments (studies that have control groups and experimental groups).
The Assumptions of Qualitative Designs
Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products.
Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning ¬how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world.
The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires, or machines.
Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site, or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting.
Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures.
The process of qualitative research is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details.
Mixed methods approach and its value;
Mixed methods researchers, brings together the benefits of both qualitative and quantitative approaches to research, often claim greater validity of results as a reason for their methodological choices, but without adequate consideration of the issues involved such validity may be more imagined than real.
Mixed methods are used to enrich understanding of an experience or issue through confirmation of conclusions, extension of knowledge or by initiating new ways of thinking about the subject of the research. Mixed methods are inherently neither more nor less valid than specific approaches to research. As with any research, validity stems more from the appropriateness, thoroughness and effectiveness with which those methods are applied and the care given to thoughtful weighing of the evidence than from the application of a particular set of rules or adherence to an established tradition.
Mixed methods designs are conceptually more complex. They may provide a basis for triangulation but, more often, they become the source of different ways of conceptualising the problem. They might set out to look at the same things from different points of view, but it often turns out that the viewpoint implies such different ways of seeing that the lines of sight do not converge. Mixed method studies might include a survey followed up by detailed individual interviews, or observations used as the basis for constructing a questionnaire. Overall inquiry purpose – whether the aim is to confirm or refute hypotheses or whether it is more exploratory
NB: mixed methods, there are at least twice as many opportunities to make mistakes and twice as many potential sources of criticism! As well as competence in skills and techniques, researchers need to understand the theories of knowledge (the epistemologies) underlying the methods, so that they can make informed choices and reflect critically on their own work
Recommended Links
Qualitative versus Quantitative - http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/Qualitative/qualquan.htm - a table (similar to above), summarizing characteristics of qualitative and quantitative research in more detail
Qualitative versus Quantitative Design - http://www.kelcom.igs.net/~nhodgins/quant_qual.html - another table (like above)
The Qualitative versus Quantitative Debate - http://writing.colostate.edu/references/research/gentrans/pop2f.cfm - good overview, but the layout is flat and difficult to skim-read
Qualitative vs Quantitative analysis - http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/monkey/ihe/linguistics/corpus3/3qual.htm - reasonable overview, with linguistics focus
Qualitative Research Designs (notes from a post-graduate research methods class)
Quantitative Research Designs (notes from a post-graduate research methods class)
Qualitative Research Exam
Quantitative Research Exam
Approach:
Define the key terms-research, qualitative, and quantitative approach.
Differences between qualitative and quantitative
The value of the mixed methods approach.
Research; is taking another step forward is searching for the unknown. Someone else has searched and explained some phenomenon, and you are adding on what is already known.
A qualitative "approach" is a general way of thinking about conducting qualitative research. It describes, either explicitly or implicitly, the purpose of the qualitative research, the role of the researcher(s), the stages of research, and the method of data analysis.
A qualitative approach: This approach promotes greater understanding of not just the way things are, but also why they are the way they are. Through intensive and extensive observation, interviews and discussions, the qualitative researcher seeks to derive and describe findings that promote greater understanding of how and why people behave the way they do. It explains and gains insight and understanding of phenomena through intensive collection of narrative data (Martin E. Amin, 2005).
In this approach, data collected is subjective and the main measurement tool for collecting data is the investigator him/herself (Martin E. Amin, 2005), therefore a need for an intensive training and practice in the methods to be used if one is to conduct an effective research. Its data is basically descriptive in nature.
A quantitative approach: On the other hand however, this appraoch deals with numbers. Quantitative research involves the collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict and control phenomena of interest, data analysis being more statistical (Martin E. Amin, 2005). It involves collecting data in order to test hypotheses or answer questions concerning the current status of the subject of the study.
Quantitative research is the sort of scientific research with which you are probably most familiar. There are a strict set of rules that govern the use of such research. Knowledgeable methodologists can evaluate the quality of such research and point out weaknesses in it.
Quantitative research is probably the least contentious of the two schools, as it is more closely aligned with what is viewed as the classical scientific paradigm. Quantitative research involves gathering data that is absolute, such as numerical data, so that it can be examined in as unbiased a manner as possible. There are many principles that go along with quantitative research, which help promote its supposed neutrality. Quantitative research generally comes later in a research project, once the scope of the project is well understood.
The main idea behind quantitative research is to be able to separate things easily so that they can be counted and modeled statistically, to remove factors that may distract from the intent of the research. A researcher generally has a very clear idea what is being measured before they start measuring it, and their study is set up with controls and a very clear blueprint. Tools used are intended to minimize any bias, so ideally are machines that collect information, and less ideally would be carefully randomized surveys. The result of quantitative research is a collection of numbers, which can be subjected to statistical analysis to come to results.
Remaining separate from the research emotionally is a key aspect of quantitative research, as is removing researcher bias. For things like astronomy or other hard sciences, this means that quantitative research has a very minimal amount of bias at all. For things like sociological data, this means that the majority of bias is hopefully limited to that introduced by the people being studied, which can be somewhat accounted for in models. Quantitative is ideal for testing hypotheses, and for hard sciences trying to answer specific questions.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is a much more subjective form of research, in which the researchers allow themselves to introduce their own bias to help form a more complete picture. Qualitative research may be necessary in situations where it is unclear what exactly is being looked for in a study, so that the researcher needs to be able to determine what data is important and what isn’t. While quantitative research generally knows exactly what it’s looking for before the research begins, in qualitative research the focus of the study may become more apparent as time progresses.
Often the data presented from qualitative research will be much less concrete than pure numbers as data. Instead, qualitative research may yield stories, or pictures, or descriptions of feelings and emotions. The interpretations given by research subjects are given weight in qualitative research, so there is no seeking to limit their bias. At the same time, researchers tend to become more emotionally attached to qualitative research, and so their own bias may also play heavily into the results.
Qualitative research methods are most often utilized in fields such as anthropology, the humanities and sociology, although each of these fields can be studied through quantitative methods as well. Since qualitative research is exploratory and focuses on discerning the why of things, such as human behavior, rather than the what of the natural world, it is often criticized for being too subjective. Many make the counter-argument, however, that since qualitative methods are hypothesis generating, they are not only just as valuable as quantitative methods but necessary for the production of theoretical models which come to inform the direction of quantitative research methods.
Data collection and analysis is another way that quantitative and qualitative research differ. In qualitative research, data samples are usually not collected through random selection but rather purposive reasoning, which is to say they are chosen for how well they typify/demonstrate the characteristics of a certain class. For example, a qualitative research study on racial inequality will not likely concern itself with affluent/rich minorities or the entire population of a minority, but rather, it might focus on depressed areas where minorities are most prevalent. This approach is chosen because qualitative researchers are not concerned with discerning the quantity of people in a minority class, but rather the quality of life for minorities who are affected by inequality.
The researcher's role in interpreting the meaning of data is more centralized in the qualitative approach than it is in quantitative methods, which ideally seek to make purely empirical observations devoid of perspective. In sharp contrast, qualitative researchers must reflect upon their research and make the reasoning behind the interpretations of their data explicit in their analysis.
Qualitative research is thought especially valuable in circumstances where quantitative data does not account for a particular phenomenon. For example, while economics frequently concerns itself with collecting concrete information, like statistics and financial data, it can be said to be flawed because it ignores the humanistic and psychological aspects of the people that are a key component. This human component requires a qualitative understanding, which leads to the development of such concepts as "consumer confidence."
An important variable to consider when analyzing the dependability of qualitative research is validity. It is important to consider how a conclusion was reached, and whether it really represents a dependable and realistic interpretation of its subject. It may or may not be pertinent to ask whether or not a conclusion is reproducible, or whether it was affected by bias. One should also consider whether data from qualitative research is well reasoned and the extent to which it accounts for a substantial majority of the available data.
The Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Qualitative Quantitative
The aim is a complete, detailed description. The aim is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.
Researcher may only know roughly in advance what he/she is looking for. Researcher knows clearly in advance what he/she is looking for.
Recommended during earlier phases of research projects. Recommended during latter phases of research projects.
The design emerges as the study unfolds. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
Researcher is the data gathering instrument. Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or equipment to collect numerical data.
Data is in the form of words, pictures or objects. Data is in the form of numbers and statistics.
Subjective - individuals’ interpretation of events is important ,e.g., uses participant observation, in-depth interviews etc. Objective – seeks precise measurement & analysis of target concepts, e.g., uses surveys, questionnaires etc.
Qualitative data is more 'rich', time consuming, and less able to be generalized. Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail.
Researcher tends to become subjectively immersed in the subject matter. Researcher tends to remain objectively separated from the subject matter.
Main Points to note
Qualitative research involves analysis of data such as words (e.g., from interviews), pictures (e.g., video), or objects (e.g., an artifact).
Quantitative research involves analysis of numerical data.
The strengths and weaknesses of qualitative and quantitative research are a perennial/permanent, hot debate, especially in the social sciences. The issues invoke classic 'paradigm war'.
The personality / thinking style of the researcher and/or the culture of the organization is under-recognized as a key factor in preferred choice of methods.
Overly focusing on the debate of "qualitative versus quantitative" frames the methods in opposition. It is important to focus also on how the techniques can be integrated, such as in mixed methods research. More good can come of social science researchers developing skills in both realms than debating which method is superior.
Unlike the non-survey types of research, these are based on numbers, and the conclusions are based on the frequencies of each category.
Thus qualitative ‘measures’ are often binary in that they are interested in the presence or absence of phenomena, or they work implicitly with simple scales (e.g. How much conversation or laughter or aggression or mutual touching in
a particular interaction?). Primarily qualitative research seeks to understand and interpret the meaning of situations or events from the perspectives of the people involved and as understood by them. It is generally inductive rather than deductive in its approach, that is, it generates theory from interpretation of the evidence, albeit against a theoretical background While Quantitative research places the emphasis on measurement when collecting and analysing data. Quantitative research is defined, not just by its use of numerical measures but also that it generally follows a natural science model of the research process measurement to establish objective knowledge (that is, knowledge that exists independently of the views and values of the people involved).
Methods of qualitative research include: Data management, Aims/analysis objectives, Sampling design Data collection Data analysis while Methods of data collection in quantitative research include: surveys (questionnaires), structured interviewing, structured observation, secondary analysis and official statistics, content analysis according to a coding system, quasi-experiments (studies that have some of the characteristics of experimental design) classic experiments (studies that have control groups and experimental groups).
The Assumptions of Qualitative Designs
Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products.
Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning ¬how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world.
The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires, or machines.
Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site, or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting.
Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures.
The process of qualitative research is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details.
Mixed methods approach and its value;
Mixed methods researchers, brings together the benefits of both qualitative and quantitative approaches to research, often claim greater validity of results as a reason for their methodological choices, but without adequate consideration of the issues involved such validity may be more imagined than real.
Mixed methods are used to enrich understanding of an experience or issue through confirmation of conclusions, extension of knowledge or by initiating new ways of thinking about the subject of the research. Mixed methods are inherently neither more nor less valid than specific approaches to research. As with any research, validity stems more from the appropriateness, thoroughness and effectiveness with which those methods are applied and the care given to thoughtful weighing of the evidence than from the application of a particular set of rules or adherence to an established tradition.
Mixed methods designs are conceptually more complex. They may provide a basis for triangulation but, more often, they become the source of different ways of conceptualising the problem. They might set out to look at the same things from different points of view, but it often turns out that the viewpoint implies such different ways of seeing that the lines of sight do not converge. Mixed method studies might include a survey followed up by detailed individual interviews, or observations used as the basis for constructing a questionnaire. Overall inquiry purpose – whether the aim is to confirm or refute hypotheses or whether it is more exploratory
NB: mixed methods, there are at least twice as many opportunities to make mistakes and twice as many potential sources of criticism! As well as competence in skills and techniques, researchers need to understand the theories of knowledge (the epistemologies) underlying the methods, so that they can make informed choices and reflect critically on their own work
Recommended Links
Qualitative versus Quantitative - http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/Qualitative/qualquan.htm - a table (similar to above), summarizing characteristics of qualitative and quantitative research in more detail
Qualitative versus Quantitative Design - http://www.kelcom.igs.net/~nhodgins/quant_qual.html - another table (like above)
The Qualitative versus Quantitative Debate - http://writing.colostate.edu/references/research/gentrans/pop2f.cfm - good overview, but the layout is flat and difficult to skim-read
Qualitative vs Quantitative analysis - http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/monkey/ihe/linguistics/corpus3/3qual.htm - reasonable overview, with linguistics focus
Qualitative Research Designs (notes from a post-graduate research methods class)
Quantitative Research Designs (notes from a post-graduate research methods class)
Qualitative Research Exam
Quantitative Research Exam
Thursday, April 8, 2010
In your own view can Millennium Development Goals assist the World to reduce poverty
NATAMBA SHADRACK
UGANDA CHRISTIAN UNVERSITY-MUKONO
snatamba@ucu.ac.ug
In your own view can Millennium Development Goals assist the World to reduce poverty?
The understanding of poverty and Millennium Development Goals
At the UN’s World Summit on Social Development (1995), the ‘Copenhagen Declaration’ described poverty as “…a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information.” When people are unable to eat, go to school, or have any access to health care, then they can be considered to be in poverty, regardless of their income. To measure poverty in any statistical way, however, more rigid definitions must be used.
According to the World Bank Organization, poverty is described as; “Poverty is hunger, poverty is lack of shelter, poverty is being sick and not being able to see a doctor, poverty is not having access to school and not knowing how to read. Poverty is not having a job, is fear for the future, living one day at a time and not having right. Poverty manifests itself as material, powerlessness, physical weakness isolation deprivation, but its causes can be found in the power relations that govern how valued resources are distributed in a society. Like most other African countries, poverty remains the greatest challenge facing the people of Uganda.
Poverty has been defined not only as lack of incomes but also as the inability to meet basic and social needs, the feeling of powerlessness to break out of the cycle of poverty, and insecurity of persons and property. In 1992 poverty rates in Uganda stood at 56% but declined to 44% in 1997, 34% in 1999/2000, then rose to 38% in 2002/2003 before falling again to 31% in 2005/2006 (PEAP 2004).
The population in Uganda is predominantly rural and agricultural based. There are significant regional disparities in poverty levels, with the highest incidence in the north of the country. More people in northern Uganda live below the poverty line (64.8%) followed by eastern region at 38.4%, Central Uganda has 19.6%, while western has 19.3% poor people. In these regions, long affected by conflict, all the MDG indicators fare very poorly, although the ongoing peace talks between the Government and the LRA rebels bring promises of peace and sustainable development for Northern Uganda at least (Uganda MDG Progress Report 2007).
The Government of Uganda has tried to address these challenges through a comprehensive national poverty reduction strategy, the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), a fundamental instrument which acts as the overarching framework for national development. The PEAP sets an ambitious target of reducing the proportion of the population living in absolute poverty from 44% in 1997 to below 10% by 2017 (PEAP 2004). On the other hand, Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are a set of time-bound and measurable goals for combating poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation, and discrimination against women. - formulated at the United Nations Millennium Summit (New York, Sept. 2000)
According to the UN Department of Public Information, the number of people living in extreme poverty worldwide, on less than one dollar a day exceeds 1.3 billion, and women are the majority (UNDPI 2003). Moreover, the focus on the quantitative measurement of a dollar a day ignores the fact that for poor people do not access affordable housing and transportation, clean and safe water and sanitation, primary health care for their families and education are essential to well-being for their families and communities (Antrobus 2005). There are multiple factors that lead to this reality, which may differ by region or locality.
Uganda in particular, is a signatory to the Millennium Declaration that was launched at the UN Summit in September 2000 and these MDGs constitute specific, measurable targets that are summarized by the following eight goals: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education; promote gender equality and empower women; reduce child mortality; improve maternal health; combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; ensure environmental sustainability; and develop a global partnership for development.
Uganda has achieved tremendous progress in the area of HIV/AIDS, poverty reduction, Universal Primary Education and gender empowerment, as well as part of goal 8 on developing partnerships for development. Income poverty levels also reduced dramatically from 56%in 1992 to 35% in 2002. It is important to note that Uganda has put in place some efforts to achieve the MDGs through the Poverty Eradication action plan (PEAP), which sums up the government’s major development plan for economic transformation and improvement in living standards. The overall goal of the PEAP is the reduction of absolute poverty to less than 10% by the year 2017.
According to the Ministry of Finance, the incidence of poverty fell from 56% in 1992, to 44% in 1997 and 35% in 2000. Uganda has done relatively well compared to many other Sub-Saharan African countries in achieving high economic growth of 6.9% per year during the 1990s and ensuring improved incomes for poor as well as better-off households. However, the impressive results have not been attained throughout the country, with places like the northern region missing out on poverty reduction “In fact, it increased from 60 to 66% between 1997 and 2000.
To achieve the MDGs by 2015 the UN Millennium Project Task Forces have identified specific sets of interventions for scaled-up investment. Many of these interventions are expected to have effects on several goals. For example, improved education leads to many benefits, including reductions in income poverty, hunger, and child mortality. Likewise meeting each goal requires integrated strategies comprising action across many different “sectors”. For example, reducing child mortality by two-thirds will not only require specific health interventions, but also improved access to water supply and sanitation to reduce diarrheal diseases; a lowering of indoor air pollution through improved cooking fuels and stoves; and improved gender equality and maternal education.
In identifying MDG interventions it is necessary to make a clear distinction between outcomes, such as hunger reduction, and areas of programmatic activity, such as raising agricultural productivity and providing nutrition. In some cases this distinction is particularly important since, for example, “health” refers to an area of programmatic activity as well as MDG outcomes. It is important to point out, that countries should carry out a goal-by-goal analysis of interventions required to meet specific MDG outcomes. Subsequently, these interventions need to be bundled into broader intervention areas that can serve as a framework for developing an operational strategy to achieve the MDGs (Sachs et al.2004).
In my own view, the MDGs can assist the world in poverty reduction and the student is going to give his analysis goal per goal using Uganda as his case study because it the best country know to him; however, references to other countries will be given.
The first MDG under analysis is to eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger and Uganda has made significant strides in reducing poverty. The population living below the poverty line reduced from 56% to 31% between 1992 and 2006. If this trend continues, prospects for achieving the income-poverty target of less than 10% by 2017 remain high. The two main indicators for monitoring hunger are the prevalence of underweight children under five years of age and the proportion of the population living below the minimum level of dietary energy consumption. Between 1995 and 2006, the proportion of underweight children reduced from 25.5% to 20.4%. The proportion of the population unable to meet the recommended food caloric intake increased from 58.7% in 1999 to 68.5% in 2006, with wide geographical divergences. The northern region reported the highest prevalence of caloric deficiency between 2002 and 2006.
However, most governments in the world and Uganda in particular have embarked on Agricultural productivity and rural infrastructure. Because three-quarters of Africa’s poor for instance live in rural areas, and an overwhelming percentage are employed in agriculture, the first area of interventions focuses on raising rural productivity in an environmentally sustainable manner. In particular, the investments in farm productivity will increase rural incomes and reduce chronic hunger, which in Africa is predominantly caused by insufficient agricultural productivity. Additional interventions for roads, power, improved cooking fuels and stoves, and water and sanitation are geared at providing a basis for higher productivity and efficiency. Investments in improved land and water management practices will help reverse environmental degradation in rural Africa and all these will be reducing poverty.
The second MDG is Universal Primary Education; which was initiated by the Government of Uganda in particular in the 1997, with the aim of increasing access to quality primary education. The government committed itself to pay school fees, provide textbooks and other instructional materials for pupils and teachers, and to meet the costs of co-curricular activities, school administration and maintenance. Although this policy was initially aimed at four children of school-going age per family, it was revised in 2002 to cover all children of school-going age.
The introduction of UPE in 1997 led to a substantial increase by 132% in gross enrollment from the pre-UPE total of 3.1 million in 1996 to 7.2 million children in 2006. In 2004, Uganda recorded a gross enrollment ratio of 104.4% and net enrollment ratio of 86%. According to the national household survey 2005/06, the net enrolment ratio was 84%, reflecting a slight decline. Uganda is, therefore, on the right path to achieving the MDG target of 100% by 2015. In addition, the gender enrollment gap in primary education has narrowed, with the proportion of girls in total enrollment rising to 49% in 2004 up from 44.2% in 1990.
From the above, one can be able to notice that increased enrollment at UPE level has significantly increased the numbers in education at all levels. The designers of UPE have paid attention to increasing girls’ completion rates. In Uganda for example, it is UPE that gave birth to Universal secondary education (USE). Therefore, it is evident that large numbers of secondary school graduates are needed to help deliver the other MDG intervention packages; for example, secondary school graduates are needed as community health workers and agricultural extension workers.
The third MDG is to improve Gender Equality and Women Empowerment; since 1990, Uganda has exercised affirmative action in favour of women with regard to admission into university and other tertiary institutions. Women applying for admission
into institutions of higher learning are awarded extra points in addition to their scores to increase their chances of gaining admission. Indeed, the policy led to significant increase in the number of women at universities. The proportion of females to the total student enrollment increased from 31% in 1993/94 to 40% in 2002 and up to 42% in 2004. In primary teacher colleges, women were 48% of the total student population in 2003 (Uganda DHS EdData Survey, 2001). At the national level, every district has an elected woman Member of Parliament. In addition, women are encouraged to compete with men for the other constituencies – nine women won parliamentary seats after contesting with men. Thus, in the current Parliament, 89 of the 310 members are women, representing 28.7% of the legislative body. This is an improvement from the 18% registered in 1995.
Despite the improvements, however, the number of women MPs still lags far behind than that of men, suggesting that the policy of affirmative action should be maintained and efforts to enhance women’s participation in politics, governance, ensuring full reproductive health rights and access to services, as well as the guarantee of equal property rights and access to work, and management be raised.
Reducing Child Mortality and Improving Maternal Mortality; the infant mortality rate, which measures child deaths before the age of one, improved to 76 deaths per 1000 live births in 2007, from 122 deaths per 1000 live births in 1991. On the other hand, the under-five mortality rate, which measures child deaths before the age of five, declined from 167 to 137 deaths per 1000 live births during the same period. Governments are trying in providing Health, nutrition, and family planning services. The aim of this is to address Africa’s extraordinary/astonishing disease burden, widespread micronutrient deficiencies children face, and the high fertility rates in women.
This package of interventions includes the medical interventions needed to improve child and maternal health; prevent the transmission of and provide treatment for HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria; improve nutrition; and provide family planning services. The two goals have an entire package of family planning and reproductive health services which are aimed at enabling a significant reduction in Africa’s very high total fertility rates by satisfying women’s desire to limit and space births. And with on doubt, the access to family planning, contraceptive services, girls’ education, women’s empowerment, and off-farm employment opportunities for young women can lead to a dramatic reduction in the total fertility rate in just a few years by helping to allow for better birth spacing and by strengthening family preferences for smaller family sizes will reduce poverty levels in the world.
Another MDG is to Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; According to the 2004-05 Uganda HIV/AIDS Sero Behavioral Survey (UHSBS), 6.4% (or slightly over 800,000 people) of adult population in Uganda are infected with HIV. Overall, there has been a declining trend of HIV infection from a peak of 18% in 1992 to the current figure. The international target is to halt, by 2015, and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS. Uganda, therefore, seems to be well on track on this target.
But despite the sustained declining trend of HIV/AIDS prevalence, it remains a significant threat to human and economic development. Over one million cumulative HIV/AIDS-related deaths have been reported since HIV/AIDS was first recognised in the country; and HIV/AIDS remains one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality in Uganda. HIV/AIDS has orphaned scores of children. Uganda has about two million orphans, 45% of whom are the result of HIV/AIDS – yet the number is rising. HIV/AIDS has created long-term impacts on the education system, which include mortality of children and teachers. The pandemic has also adversely affected labour productivity and output in all organizations through decimating the workforce, especially skilled personnel.
Malaria remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Uganda. It accounts for 52% of outpatient department attendance, and 30% of in-patient admissions. Malaria morbidity remains high and 95% of the country is still classified as endemic to the disease. The disease is responsible for 9-14% of all in-patient deaths. However, the inpatient deaths for children under-five attributed to the disease are about double at 20-23%. Increasing cases of malaria may be attributed to increased resistance to most commonly available drugs. I strongly believe that if HIV/AIDS and Malaria are dealt with by encouraging the people to change their behaviors, the population will be active in all sectors that foster development.
The second last MDG is to ensure Environmental Sustainability; there has been a positive trend in rural water coverage between 1992 and 2002, although it is still below the target of providing safe water within easy reach of 65% of the rural population by 2005 and 100% of the population by 2015. Data from the recent Ugandan National Household Survey (UNHS, 2006) and information from the Directorate of Water Department (DWD) indicate an increase in water service coverage nationwide from a little over 20% in 1991 to almost 68% in 2006. Equally, the Uganda Population and Housing Census (UPHC) data reports a rise in water service coverage from 26% in 1991 to 68% in 2002.
Uganda was initially well endowed with environmental resources, but various reports indicate persistent degradation of the country’s natural resources, namely: declining soil fertility; deforestation, particularly outside protected areas; pasture degradation; decreasing fish stocks; and water pollution caused by discharge from industries and domestic waste, among others. This degradation impacts heavily on livelihoods of the poor by constraining their ability to increase incomes and making them more vulnerable. This environmental stress is partly attributed to the recent impressive economic growth in the country. Uganda is reported to be losing its forest cover through deforestation. Various studies report estimates of varying annual deforestation rates from 550 km (UNHS, 2006) per year to 700 km2 to 2,000 km2 per year, primarily due to deforestation for agricultural land (FD, 2000; MFPED, 1994; FAO, 2000 – cited in UNDP, 2004).
The last MDG is the Global Partnership for Development; Uganda does not have specific (localized) targets for this goal. However, the PEAP is devoted entirely to the matter of developing partnerships for the realization of the development targets. Partnerships relate both to policies and mobilization of resources for financing the development process.
On the policy side, Uganda has had a stabilization and structural adjustment programme with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) since 1987. This allowed partnerships between Uganda and other donors to develop throughout the 1990s to date. Uganda’s economy is open, rule-based and quite predictable. However, it is a fragile economy that could be grossly affected by political developments. Uganda is an active participant in the New Partnership for Africa Development (NEPAD) that promotes good governance through its peer review mechanism. The peer review for Uganda that is coordinated by the National Planning Authority (NPA) at the national level and by NEPAD at a regional level is ongoing. With regard to resource mobilization for financing the development process, Uganda is placing heavy emphasis on improving domestic revenue, which in 2004/05financial year was 12.7% of GDP, way below the Sub-Saharan average of 18%.
Cross-National Infrastructure, Trade Integration, and Government Cooperation; Uganda is one of the examples the landlocked countries in sub-Saharan Africa and this means that without such countries have little chance to develop unless they have ready access to the coast through efficient, low cost infrastructure. Moreover, from a global perspective, individual African countries often present very small markets. Currently, East African countries are holding talks on how to have a Regional integration which will make possible for the five countries to exchange goods and services freely and this will also raise the interest of potential foreign investors by increasing the scope of the market accompanying a potential operating presence in East Africa. Regional integration is also important for achieving scale economies in infrastructure networks such as power grids, large-scale electricity generation, road transport, rails, and telecommunications.
Other strategies that governments have put in place in line with the Millennium development goals include; Slum upgrading and urban management; in conjunction with rural-urban migration fueled by abject/horrible rural poverty, a lack of urban jobs has led to high levels of urban poverty that are rising across much of the continent. This MDG focuses on urban infrastructure and services (electricity, transport, water and sanitation, waste disposal, and so forth) and slum upgrading. Successful urban development and the creation of viable export industries across Africa are contingent on improved access to rich countries’ markets, particularly for apparel and light manufacturing, as well as the flexibility to use targeted industrial policies as needed.
Secondly is Science, technology and innovation; these interventions focus on the mobilization of science and technology. Currently, tropical sub-Saharan Africa produces roughly twenty times fewer patents per capita than the average for the rest of the developing world. The region has only 18 scientists and engineers per million people, compared with 69 in South Asia, 76 in the Middle East, 273 in Latin America, and 903 in East Asia. Countries like Uganda have increased their investment in science by encouraging education institutions to teach sciences.
MDG Facts; 31%of the Ugandan population lives below US$1.00 per person per day, 20.4%of Ugandan children go to bed hungry , 84% of Ugandan children are enrolled in primary school, The average Ugandan woman spends 9 hours a day on care labor activities such as fetching water, firewood and caring for the sick, 13.7% of children die before their fifth birthday, 7.6% of infants die before their first birthday, For every 100,000 new mothers, 435 die while giving birth , Only 41% of births are attended by skilled personnel, 6.4% of the Ugandan population is infected with HIV/AIDS, 67% of Ugandan households have access to safe water today
In conclusion, a careful consideration to the issue of gender equality, that is, to an improved economic and social status for Africa’s women is important. To a great extent, women are the farmers, caregivers, and child raisers of Africa. They perform an incredible amount of physical labor every day merely to keep their households alive. Fetching fuel wood and water, caring for the farm animals, plowing the fields, and caring for the sick and dying in the AIDS pandemic are all tasks disproportionately borne by Africa’s women. Many of the recommended investments, such as improved access to water supply, modern cooking fuels, enhanced transport services, and improved soil nutrients, will have a special benefit for women and will target them directly.
References:
Acaye, G. (2001). Increased utilization, reduced quality: the results of cost sharing abolition in Busia. Uganda Health Bulletin 7(3) 49-53.
Consistent with Sachs et al. (2004), this paper focuses on the tropical countries of sub-Saharan Africa.
Human Development Report (2006); Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis published for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
Human Development Report (2003); Millennium Development Goals: A compact among nations to end human poverty Published for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) New York Oxford Oxford University Press 2003
Kasente, DH (1995) Processes Influencing Gender Differences in Access to Post Secondary Institutions in Uganda. PhD Thesis. Kenyatta University, Nairobi.
Kirunga Tashobya, C., and P., Ogwang Ogwal (2004). The Effort to achieve the
Millennium Development Goals in Uganda: Reaching for the sky? Health Policy and Development, 2(1) 33-39.
MFPED (2004). Poverty Eradication Action Plan (2004/5-2007/8) (December) (Kampala: MFPED)
MFPED (2004). "An Overview of the National Economy", Discussion Paper 7.
(Kampala: MFPED).
MFPED (2004). Poverty Eradication Action Plan 2004/05-2007/08. (Kampala: MFPED).
MFPED (2005). Background to the Budget, 2005/06). (Kampala: MFPED).
MFPED and UNDP (2003). The Millennium Development Goals Report for Uganda. (Kampala: MFPED
and UNDP).
Millennium Development Goals Uganda’s Progress Report 2007
Millennium Development GOALS; Progress Report by Denmark 2004
Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) (2004). The Education Sector Annual Performance Report,
Ministry of Health (2000). Health Sector Strategic Plan, 2000/01-2004/05. (Kampala: Ministry of Health).
Uganda DHS EdData Survey, 2001. Education Data for Decision Making. UBOS, Entebbe, Uganda.
Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) (2000). Uganda National Household Survey 1999/2000. (Entebbe: UBOS).
Okidi, John and Andrew McKay (2003). "Poverty dynamics in Uganda: 1992 to 2000," Chronic Poverty
UN Summit for Social Development Copenhagen (1995).
Web references:
Ministry of Health (2000). More about HIV/AIDS in Uganda. Internet: http://www.health.go.ug/docs/ part2_current.pdf Bulletin Vol. 8: No. (3/4): 211-214.
Uganda Case Study. Internet: http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/oppguganda.pdf October 23/09
More information about the MDGs is available at www.unmillenniumproject.org and www.un.org/millenniumgoals
www.africansuntimes.com/index/ast/news/women,03.09.09
UGANDA CHRISTIAN UNVERSITY-MUKONO
snatamba@ucu.ac.ug
In your own view can Millennium Development Goals assist the World to reduce poverty?
The understanding of poverty and Millennium Development Goals
At the UN’s World Summit on Social Development (1995), the ‘Copenhagen Declaration’ described poverty as “…a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information.” When people are unable to eat, go to school, or have any access to health care, then they can be considered to be in poverty, regardless of their income. To measure poverty in any statistical way, however, more rigid definitions must be used.
According to the World Bank Organization, poverty is described as; “Poverty is hunger, poverty is lack of shelter, poverty is being sick and not being able to see a doctor, poverty is not having access to school and not knowing how to read. Poverty is not having a job, is fear for the future, living one day at a time and not having right. Poverty manifests itself as material, powerlessness, physical weakness isolation deprivation, but its causes can be found in the power relations that govern how valued resources are distributed in a society. Like most other African countries, poverty remains the greatest challenge facing the people of Uganda.
Poverty has been defined not only as lack of incomes but also as the inability to meet basic and social needs, the feeling of powerlessness to break out of the cycle of poverty, and insecurity of persons and property. In 1992 poverty rates in Uganda stood at 56% but declined to 44% in 1997, 34% in 1999/2000, then rose to 38% in 2002/2003 before falling again to 31% in 2005/2006 (PEAP 2004).
The population in Uganda is predominantly rural and agricultural based. There are significant regional disparities in poverty levels, with the highest incidence in the north of the country. More people in northern Uganda live below the poverty line (64.8%) followed by eastern region at 38.4%, Central Uganda has 19.6%, while western has 19.3% poor people. In these regions, long affected by conflict, all the MDG indicators fare very poorly, although the ongoing peace talks between the Government and the LRA rebels bring promises of peace and sustainable development for Northern Uganda at least (Uganda MDG Progress Report 2007).
The Government of Uganda has tried to address these challenges through a comprehensive national poverty reduction strategy, the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), a fundamental instrument which acts as the overarching framework for national development. The PEAP sets an ambitious target of reducing the proportion of the population living in absolute poverty from 44% in 1997 to below 10% by 2017 (PEAP 2004). On the other hand, Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are a set of time-bound and measurable goals for combating poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation, and discrimination against women. - formulated at the United Nations Millennium Summit (New York, Sept. 2000)
According to the UN Department of Public Information, the number of people living in extreme poverty worldwide, on less than one dollar a day exceeds 1.3 billion, and women are the majority (UNDPI 2003). Moreover, the focus on the quantitative measurement of a dollar a day ignores the fact that for poor people do not access affordable housing and transportation, clean and safe water and sanitation, primary health care for their families and education are essential to well-being for their families and communities (Antrobus 2005). There are multiple factors that lead to this reality, which may differ by region or locality.
Uganda in particular, is a signatory to the Millennium Declaration that was launched at the UN Summit in September 2000 and these MDGs constitute specific, measurable targets that are summarized by the following eight goals: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education; promote gender equality and empower women; reduce child mortality; improve maternal health; combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; ensure environmental sustainability; and develop a global partnership for development.
Uganda has achieved tremendous progress in the area of HIV/AIDS, poverty reduction, Universal Primary Education and gender empowerment, as well as part of goal 8 on developing partnerships for development. Income poverty levels also reduced dramatically from 56%in 1992 to 35% in 2002. It is important to note that Uganda has put in place some efforts to achieve the MDGs through the Poverty Eradication action plan (PEAP), which sums up the government’s major development plan for economic transformation and improvement in living standards. The overall goal of the PEAP is the reduction of absolute poverty to less than 10% by the year 2017.
According to the Ministry of Finance, the incidence of poverty fell from 56% in 1992, to 44% in 1997 and 35% in 2000. Uganda has done relatively well compared to many other Sub-Saharan African countries in achieving high economic growth of 6.9% per year during the 1990s and ensuring improved incomes for poor as well as better-off households. However, the impressive results have not been attained throughout the country, with places like the northern region missing out on poverty reduction “In fact, it increased from 60 to 66% between 1997 and 2000.
To achieve the MDGs by 2015 the UN Millennium Project Task Forces have identified specific sets of interventions for scaled-up investment. Many of these interventions are expected to have effects on several goals. For example, improved education leads to many benefits, including reductions in income poverty, hunger, and child mortality. Likewise meeting each goal requires integrated strategies comprising action across many different “sectors”. For example, reducing child mortality by two-thirds will not only require specific health interventions, but also improved access to water supply and sanitation to reduce diarrheal diseases; a lowering of indoor air pollution through improved cooking fuels and stoves; and improved gender equality and maternal education.
In identifying MDG interventions it is necessary to make a clear distinction between outcomes, such as hunger reduction, and areas of programmatic activity, such as raising agricultural productivity and providing nutrition. In some cases this distinction is particularly important since, for example, “health” refers to an area of programmatic activity as well as MDG outcomes. It is important to point out, that countries should carry out a goal-by-goal analysis of interventions required to meet specific MDG outcomes. Subsequently, these interventions need to be bundled into broader intervention areas that can serve as a framework for developing an operational strategy to achieve the MDGs (Sachs et al.2004).
In my own view, the MDGs can assist the world in poverty reduction and the student is going to give his analysis goal per goal using Uganda as his case study because it the best country know to him; however, references to other countries will be given.
The first MDG under analysis is to eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger and Uganda has made significant strides in reducing poverty. The population living below the poverty line reduced from 56% to 31% between 1992 and 2006. If this trend continues, prospects for achieving the income-poverty target of less than 10% by 2017 remain high. The two main indicators for monitoring hunger are the prevalence of underweight children under five years of age and the proportion of the population living below the minimum level of dietary energy consumption. Between 1995 and 2006, the proportion of underweight children reduced from 25.5% to 20.4%. The proportion of the population unable to meet the recommended food caloric intake increased from 58.7% in 1999 to 68.5% in 2006, with wide geographical divergences. The northern region reported the highest prevalence of caloric deficiency between 2002 and 2006.
However, most governments in the world and Uganda in particular have embarked on Agricultural productivity and rural infrastructure. Because three-quarters of Africa’s poor for instance live in rural areas, and an overwhelming percentage are employed in agriculture, the first area of interventions focuses on raising rural productivity in an environmentally sustainable manner. In particular, the investments in farm productivity will increase rural incomes and reduce chronic hunger, which in Africa is predominantly caused by insufficient agricultural productivity. Additional interventions for roads, power, improved cooking fuels and stoves, and water and sanitation are geared at providing a basis for higher productivity and efficiency. Investments in improved land and water management practices will help reverse environmental degradation in rural Africa and all these will be reducing poverty.
The second MDG is Universal Primary Education; which was initiated by the Government of Uganda in particular in the 1997, with the aim of increasing access to quality primary education. The government committed itself to pay school fees, provide textbooks and other instructional materials for pupils and teachers, and to meet the costs of co-curricular activities, school administration and maintenance. Although this policy was initially aimed at four children of school-going age per family, it was revised in 2002 to cover all children of school-going age.
The introduction of UPE in 1997 led to a substantial increase by 132% in gross enrollment from the pre-UPE total of 3.1 million in 1996 to 7.2 million children in 2006. In 2004, Uganda recorded a gross enrollment ratio of 104.4% and net enrollment ratio of 86%. According to the national household survey 2005/06, the net enrolment ratio was 84%, reflecting a slight decline. Uganda is, therefore, on the right path to achieving the MDG target of 100% by 2015. In addition, the gender enrollment gap in primary education has narrowed, with the proportion of girls in total enrollment rising to 49% in 2004 up from 44.2% in 1990.
From the above, one can be able to notice that increased enrollment at UPE level has significantly increased the numbers in education at all levels. The designers of UPE have paid attention to increasing girls’ completion rates. In Uganda for example, it is UPE that gave birth to Universal secondary education (USE). Therefore, it is evident that large numbers of secondary school graduates are needed to help deliver the other MDG intervention packages; for example, secondary school graduates are needed as community health workers and agricultural extension workers.
The third MDG is to improve Gender Equality and Women Empowerment; since 1990, Uganda has exercised affirmative action in favour of women with regard to admission into university and other tertiary institutions. Women applying for admission
into institutions of higher learning are awarded extra points in addition to their scores to increase their chances of gaining admission. Indeed, the policy led to significant increase in the number of women at universities. The proportion of females to the total student enrollment increased from 31% in 1993/94 to 40% in 2002 and up to 42% in 2004. In primary teacher colleges, women were 48% of the total student population in 2003 (Uganda DHS EdData Survey, 2001). At the national level, every district has an elected woman Member of Parliament. In addition, women are encouraged to compete with men for the other constituencies – nine women won parliamentary seats after contesting with men. Thus, in the current Parliament, 89 of the 310 members are women, representing 28.7% of the legislative body. This is an improvement from the 18% registered in 1995.
Despite the improvements, however, the number of women MPs still lags far behind than that of men, suggesting that the policy of affirmative action should be maintained and efforts to enhance women’s participation in politics, governance, ensuring full reproductive health rights and access to services, as well as the guarantee of equal property rights and access to work, and management be raised.
Reducing Child Mortality and Improving Maternal Mortality; the infant mortality rate, which measures child deaths before the age of one, improved to 76 deaths per 1000 live births in 2007, from 122 deaths per 1000 live births in 1991. On the other hand, the under-five mortality rate, which measures child deaths before the age of five, declined from 167 to 137 deaths per 1000 live births during the same period. Governments are trying in providing Health, nutrition, and family planning services. The aim of this is to address Africa’s extraordinary/astonishing disease burden, widespread micronutrient deficiencies children face, and the high fertility rates in women.
This package of interventions includes the medical interventions needed to improve child and maternal health; prevent the transmission of and provide treatment for HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria; improve nutrition; and provide family planning services. The two goals have an entire package of family planning and reproductive health services which are aimed at enabling a significant reduction in Africa’s very high total fertility rates by satisfying women’s desire to limit and space births. And with on doubt, the access to family planning, contraceptive services, girls’ education, women’s empowerment, and off-farm employment opportunities for young women can lead to a dramatic reduction in the total fertility rate in just a few years by helping to allow for better birth spacing and by strengthening family preferences for smaller family sizes will reduce poverty levels in the world.
Another MDG is to Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; According to the 2004-05 Uganda HIV/AIDS Sero Behavioral Survey (UHSBS), 6.4% (or slightly over 800,000 people) of adult population in Uganda are infected with HIV. Overall, there has been a declining trend of HIV infection from a peak of 18% in 1992 to the current figure. The international target is to halt, by 2015, and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS. Uganda, therefore, seems to be well on track on this target.
But despite the sustained declining trend of HIV/AIDS prevalence, it remains a significant threat to human and economic development. Over one million cumulative HIV/AIDS-related deaths have been reported since HIV/AIDS was first recognised in the country; and HIV/AIDS remains one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality in Uganda. HIV/AIDS has orphaned scores of children. Uganda has about two million orphans, 45% of whom are the result of HIV/AIDS – yet the number is rising. HIV/AIDS has created long-term impacts on the education system, which include mortality of children and teachers. The pandemic has also adversely affected labour productivity and output in all organizations through decimating the workforce, especially skilled personnel.
Malaria remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Uganda. It accounts for 52% of outpatient department attendance, and 30% of in-patient admissions. Malaria morbidity remains high and 95% of the country is still classified as endemic to the disease. The disease is responsible for 9-14% of all in-patient deaths. However, the inpatient deaths for children under-five attributed to the disease are about double at 20-23%. Increasing cases of malaria may be attributed to increased resistance to most commonly available drugs. I strongly believe that if HIV/AIDS and Malaria are dealt with by encouraging the people to change their behaviors, the population will be active in all sectors that foster development.
The second last MDG is to ensure Environmental Sustainability; there has been a positive trend in rural water coverage between 1992 and 2002, although it is still below the target of providing safe water within easy reach of 65% of the rural population by 2005 and 100% of the population by 2015. Data from the recent Ugandan National Household Survey (UNHS, 2006) and information from the Directorate of Water Department (DWD) indicate an increase in water service coverage nationwide from a little over 20% in 1991 to almost 68% in 2006. Equally, the Uganda Population and Housing Census (UPHC) data reports a rise in water service coverage from 26% in 1991 to 68% in 2002.
Uganda was initially well endowed with environmental resources, but various reports indicate persistent degradation of the country’s natural resources, namely: declining soil fertility; deforestation, particularly outside protected areas; pasture degradation; decreasing fish stocks; and water pollution caused by discharge from industries and domestic waste, among others. This degradation impacts heavily on livelihoods of the poor by constraining their ability to increase incomes and making them more vulnerable. This environmental stress is partly attributed to the recent impressive economic growth in the country. Uganda is reported to be losing its forest cover through deforestation. Various studies report estimates of varying annual deforestation rates from 550 km (UNHS, 2006) per year to 700 km2 to 2,000 km2 per year, primarily due to deforestation for agricultural land (FD, 2000; MFPED, 1994; FAO, 2000 – cited in UNDP, 2004).
The last MDG is the Global Partnership for Development; Uganda does not have specific (localized) targets for this goal. However, the PEAP is devoted entirely to the matter of developing partnerships for the realization of the development targets. Partnerships relate both to policies and mobilization of resources for financing the development process.
On the policy side, Uganda has had a stabilization and structural adjustment programme with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) since 1987. This allowed partnerships between Uganda and other donors to develop throughout the 1990s to date. Uganda’s economy is open, rule-based and quite predictable. However, it is a fragile economy that could be grossly affected by political developments. Uganda is an active participant in the New Partnership for Africa Development (NEPAD) that promotes good governance through its peer review mechanism. The peer review for Uganda that is coordinated by the National Planning Authority (NPA) at the national level and by NEPAD at a regional level is ongoing. With regard to resource mobilization for financing the development process, Uganda is placing heavy emphasis on improving domestic revenue, which in 2004/05financial year was 12.7% of GDP, way below the Sub-Saharan average of 18%.
Cross-National Infrastructure, Trade Integration, and Government Cooperation; Uganda is one of the examples the landlocked countries in sub-Saharan Africa and this means that without such countries have little chance to develop unless they have ready access to the coast through efficient, low cost infrastructure. Moreover, from a global perspective, individual African countries often present very small markets. Currently, East African countries are holding talks on how to have a Regional integration which will make possible for the five countries to exchange goods and services freely and this will also raise the interest of potential foreign investors by increasing the scope of the market accompanying a potential operating presence in East Africa. Regional integration is also important for achieving scale economies in infrastructure networks such as power grids, large-scale electricity generation, road transport, rails, and telecommunications.
Other strategies that governments have put in place in line with the Millennium development goals include; Slum upgrading and urban management; in conjunction with rural-urban migration fueled by abject/horrible rural poverty, a lack of urban jobs has led to high levels of urban poverty that are rising across much of the continent. This MDG focuses on urban infrastructure and services (electricity, transport, water and sanitation, waste disposal, and so forth) and slum upgrading. Successful urban development and the creation of viable export industries across Africa are contingent on improved access to rich countries’ markets, particularly for apparel and light manufacturing, as well as the flexibility to use targeted industrial policies as needed.
Secondly is Science, technology and innovation; these interventions focus on the mobilization of science and technology. Currently, tropical sub-Saharan Africa produces roughly twenty times fewer patents per capita than the average for the rest of the developing world. The region has only 18 scientists and engineers per million people, compared with 69 in South Asia, 76 in the Middle East, 273 in Latin America, and 903 in East Asia. Countries like Uganda have increased their investment in science by encouraging education institutions to teach sciences.
MDG Facts; 31%of the Ugandan population lives below US$1.00 per person per day, 20.4%of Ugandan children go to bed hungry , 84% of Ugandan children are enrolled in primary school, The average Ugandan woman spends 9 hours a day on care labor activities such as fetching water, firewood and caring for the sick, 13.7% of children die before their fifth birthday, 7.6% of infants die before their first birthday, For every 100,000 new mothers, 435 die while giving birth , Only 41% of births are attended by skilled personnel, 6.4% of the Ugandan population is infected with HIV/AIDS, 67% of Ugandan households have access to safe water today
In conclusion, a careful consideration to the issue of gender equality, that is, to an improved economic and social status for Africa’s women is important. To a great extent, women are the farmers, caregivers, and child raisers of Africa. They perform an incredible amount of physical labor every day merely to keep their households alive. Fetching fuel wood and water, caring for the farm animals, plowing the fields, and caring for the sick and dying in the AIDS pandemic are all tasks disproportionately borne by Africa’s women. Many of the recommended investments, such as improved access to water supply, modern cooking fuels, enhanced transport services, and improved soil nutrients, will have a special benefit for women and will target them directly.
References:
Acaye, G. (2001). Increased utilization, reduced quality: the results of cost sharing abolition in Busia. Uganda Health Bulletin 7(3) 49-53.
Consistent with Sachs et al. (2004), this paper focuses on the tropical countries of sub-Saharan Africa.
Human Development Report (2006); Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis published for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
Human Development Report (2003); Millennium Development Goals: A compact among nations to end human poverty Published for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) New York Oxford Oxford University Press 2003
Kasente, DH (1995) Processes Influencing Gender Differences in Access to Post Secondary Institutions in Uganda. PhD Thesis. Kenyatta University, Nairobi.
Kirunga Tashobya, C., and P., Ogwang Ogwal (2004). The Effort to achieve the
Millennium Development Goals in Uganda: Reaching for the sky? Health Policy and Development, 2(1) 33-39.
MFPED (2004). Poverty Eradication Action Plan (2004/5-2007/8) (December) (Kampala: MFPED)
MFPED (2004). "An Overview of the National Economy", Discussion Paper 7.
(Kampala: MFPED).
MFPED (2004). Poverty Eradication Action Plan 2004/05-2007/08. (Kampala: MFPED).
MFPED (2005). Background to the Budget, 2005/06). (Kampala: MFPED).
MFPED and UNDP (2003). The Millennium Development Goals Report for Uganda. (Kampala: MFPED
and UNDP).
Millennium Development Goals Uganda’s Progress Report 2007
Millennium Development GOALS; Progress Report by Denmark 2004
Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) (2004). The Education Sector Annual Performance Report,
Ministry of Health (2000). Health Sector Strategic Plan, 2000/01-2004/05. (Kampala: Ministry of Health).
Uganda DHS EdData Survey, 2001. Education Data for Decision Making. UBOS, Entebbe, Uganda.
Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) (2000). Uganda National Household Survey 1999/2000. (Entebbe: UBOS).
Okidi, John and Andrew McKay (2003). "Poverty dynamics in Uganda: 1992 to 2000," Chronic Poverty
UN Summit for Social Development Copenhagen (1995).
Web references:
Ministry of Health (2000). More about HIV/AIDS in Uganda. Internet: http://www.health.go.ug/docs/ part2_current.pdf Bulletin Vol. 8: No. (3/4): 211-214.
Uganda Case Study. Internet: http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/oppguganda.pdf October 23/09
More information about the MDGs is available at www.unmillenniumproject.org and www.un.org/millenniumgoals
www.africansuntimes.com/index/ast/news/women,03.09.09
What are links between poverty and good governance
UGANDA CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY – MUKONO
MA DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
NATAMBA SHADRACK
Question: ?
The conceptual understanding of the Key words- poverty and Good Governance
According to the World Bank Organization poverty is described as: “Poverty is hunger, poverty is lack of shelter, poverty is being sick and not being able to see a doctor, poverty is not having access to school and not knowing how to read. Poverty is not having a job, is fear for the future, living one day at a time and not having right
Poverty has many faces, changing from place to place and across time, and has been described in many ways. Most often, poverty is a situation people want to escape. So poverty is a call to action -- for the poor and the wealthy alike -- a call to change the world so that many more may have enough to eat, adequate shelter, access to education and health, protection from violence, and a voice in what happens in their communities (Nuwagaba A 2007).
In addition to a lack of money, poverty is about not being able to participate in recreational activities; not being able to send children on a day trip with their schoolmates or to a birthday party; not being able to pay for medications for an illness. These are all costs of being poor. Those people who are barely able to pay for food and shelter simply cannot consider these other expenses. When people are excluded within a society, when they are not well educated and when they have a higher incidence of illness, there are negative consequences for society. We all pay the price for poverty; the increased cost on the health system, the justice system and other systems that provide supports to those living in poverty has an impact on our economy.
While much progress has been made in measuring and analyzing poverty, Nuwagaba A (2009), argues that 80% of the people in Masaka district in Uganda use “Munaku Tadoba” candles for lighting. The World Bank Organization is doing more work to identify indicators for the other dimensions of poverty. This work includes identifying social indicators to track education, health, access to services, vulnerability, and social exclusion. It is therefore, important to note that this animal called ‘Poverty’ can easily be identified than defining and there is no single factor that can be attributed to causing poverty, and that its results are different in every case. Poverty varies considerably
depending on the situation for instance, feeling poor in Canada is different from feeling poor in Uganda. The differences between rich and poor within the borders of a country can also be great despite the many definitions, one thing is certain; poverty is a complex societal issue.
According to UNDP (1997); UNDP'S Experience in Mozambique, Governance can be defined as "the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority in the management of a country's affairs at all levels. Good Governance comprises the complex mechanisms, processes and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, mediate their differences and exercise their legal rights and obligations. Good governance has many attributes. It is participatory, transparent and accountable. It is effective in making the best use of resources and is equitable. And it promotes the rule of law." Good governance has eight major characteristics and these are; participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law. It assures that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are taken into account and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making. It is also responsive to the present and future needs of society.
Source: UNDP (1997) Governance for Sustainable Human Development. United Nations Development Programme.
Good Governance is the exercise of politico-administrative and managerial authority and order which is legitimate, accountable, transparent, democratic, efficient and equitable in resource allocation and utilization, and responsive to the critical needs of promoting human welfare and positive transformation of society. It manifests itself through benchmarks which include a constitution, pillars of the state derived from the constitution, mechanisms for checks and balances on governments, efficient mechanisms of delivery of services by government, security, good leadership, the rule of law, participation by the people, freedom of expression, transparency, accountability, legitimacy, devolution of power, informed citizenry, strong civil society, protection of basic human rights, regular free and fair elections, good international relations, political stability, protection of property and life.
Despite improvements registered in recent years in terms of economic growth, which President Museveni, during his Independence Day message on October 9 2009 said was growing at 7% GDP, many seem to be living in the shadows of these impressive figures. But Mr. Museveni said 23 years ago, the average annual income of a Ugandan was $264, today every citizen, he said has some $1.4 (about Shs3,500.) in their pockets daily, adding to some $504 a year. For example, the latest Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) report titled “Spatial trends of poverty and inequality in Uganda 2002-2005” shows that the proportion of Ugandans still living in absolute poverty is 31 percent (about 9 million people), with the majority of these found in the east and northern regions. This, however, according to the report is an improvement from 39 per cent of people who were living in abject/horrible poverty in 2002.
Development experts think the fight has not reached the poverty heartland. According to Prof. Augustus Nuwagaba from Makerere University, who has done wide consultancy on poverty eradication in Africa said “the rapid economic growth that the country is experiencing is not translating into better life for most of its citizens, the economic growth which should be benefiting the whole country is being enjoyed by a few people. It hasn’t been distributed evenly,” Monitor Saturday, October 24, 2009
According to the UBOS report, in all the four regions of the country, the rural poverty rate is higher than the urban poverty rate, usually ranging between 19.3 per cent and 65 per cent for rural areas and less than 25 per cent for urban areas, except northern Uganda where urban poverty is at 39.7 percent. In terms of the poverty gap, the report says the north still reported a high gap of 23.5 per cent compared to only 4.52 per cent in western Uganda.
A 2007 UNDP midterm report on Uganda’s performance on the MDGs shows that the country is on track to meet its goal of cutting poverty by 2015, but it’s threatened by several factors including low agricultural production and a fast growing population. The population growth stands at 3.2 per cent annually. This means that the population doubles every 20 years, and by 2025, it is expected to have grown to 56 million people.
The theoretical link between good governance and poverty is that Good governance is founded on citizens’ ability to claim entitlements in three broad areas: the right to participate in public decision-making; the inclusion of people’s needs and interests in policy; and the allocation of resources (Baden 2000. The level of each of these above characteristics will determine the level of poverty alleviation.
The linkages between good governance and poverty;
First of all, accountability at the national and local level is very important as far as poverty is concerned. Through general elections all citizens, including the poor and marginalized, can exercise their basic democratic right to make their voice heard and influence the direction of public policy. Accountability, however, comes not only from voting every few years, but also through the establishment of appropriate systems of monitoring and control that allow for a fair and transparent allocation of government resources. Lack of accountability means that the poor pay a particularly high price for corruption, as they often lack the power and the knowledge to avoid paying bribes and to defend themselves and their own rights.
Another way of promoting accountability is through participation mechanisms, as the poor are likely to benefit mostly from programs that they have helped design and implement, and over which they have some degree of control (Mette, A.K. 2004)).
Related to the above, the Human Development Report (2000) states that accountability is about power; it is not just about having a voice in decision making but about making the leaders accountable. When leaders became responsible about the decisions and actions they make which should be pro-poor. The World Bank for example estimates that over $300 million dollars is lost to corruption annually in Uganda. . This has perpetuated poverty in many ways and it is the reason for the persistent poverty in the country. If people held leaders accountable, then they would not squander or misallocate resources and if these resources are put into right use, then there will be reduced levels of poverty in Uganda
Secondly, Participation; is very paramount in as far as poverty reduction is concerned. The level of participation determines how much the planners can be able to put into implementation and off-course this is a road map to economic development (UNESCAP 2009). This could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. It is important to point out that participation does not necessarily mean that the concerns of the most vulnerable in society would be taken into consideration in decision making. It also gives the people a sense of ownership thus making policies and development programmes more sustainable.
Human development; it is good governance that facilitates human development which is a core principle in development. Human development is about expanding people’s functioning’s and capabilities (Human Development Report; 2000) and it goes beyond mere/sheer rights to freedom, to education, to health, among other basic needs to a level where one is able to participate in decision making and the general development process. If there is good governance, services like health, education and population growth and employment will be provided to the people and the moment they are empowered to know what should be done, then poverty will be gradually reduced. A high population for example puts a lot of strain on the available resources, services and facilities which directly hampers economic development (Abdellatif, 2003:15).
Legal Rights and Access to Justice; Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It also requires full protection of human rights, particularly
those of minorities. Impartial enforcement of laws requires an independent judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force. Poor and disempowered groups such as women encounter discrimination within legal governance systems at three levels: 1) laws (discriminatory laws on property ownership or absence of anti-violence legislation); 2) legal systems (information requirements or evidence procedures); and cultural attitudes (male bias of judges and lawyers). However, reform of democratic structures and the drawing up of constitutions in the developing world have provided women’s movements with an entry point in which to ensure their rights are embedded in legislation (Baden 2000). Nonetheless, such legislation often adds to ‘parallel’ legal systems where new sets of legal rights co-exist alongside other formal and informal or customary laws. The use of customary law is more common the farther individuals are from the centre of the state – both geographically and in terms of their socio-economic position. It will therefore be more likely to impact on the lives of poor people than ‘formal’ law. Customary law is also particularly significant for women’s access to justice since it tends to govern family or domestic issues such as marriage, divorce, adultery and gender-based violence.
Research indicates that when cases are tried through customary law there may be even less chance of women receiving justice than in the case of formal legal systems (Nyamu-Musembi 2005).
Decentralization has generally been considered to be a positive step towards making governments more accountable to the poor by bringing decision-making down to a local level. Research has show that where resources are available, decentralisation has resulted in the greater participation of poor and marginalised groups of people such as women in decision making, and in monitoring the activities of local governments. However it must be remembered that local service providers are not in charge of national budgets and some commentators have argued that poverty reduction measures are therefore better dealt with at the national level. It has also enhanced service delivery and the development of a culture of participation by the people and accountability toward the people. Thus, decentralization and local governments play important roles in a number of the key priority areas including: 1) Promoting democracy; 2) Improving local ownership of development efforts and; 3) Enhancing accountability and the fight against corruption.
In addition, democratic opportunities depend significantly on the Poor’s access to information and communication, especially in the light of the great potential created by more recent technologies, access to which remains highly unequal. Expanding such access can enhance people's capacity to understand issues, to participate in public life more constructively, and to create important linkages that can result in coalitions for change. In this sense the potential role of information and communication in the democratization of governance structures is great.
Good governance promotes stability of governments and this creates a good environment for investment, and this is a source of revenue for the country and provides job opportunities. The level at which government can attract both foreign and local investor determines how much jobs will be created, the production of goods and services and how much revenue that will be collected. On top of the above, when a country is politically stable, its people can participate in production of goods and services and at the end this can boost the country’s economy.
Efficiency and effectiveness; Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making the best use of resources at their disposal. The concept of efficiency in the context of good governance also covers the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment (UNESCAP 2009). Similarly, under good governance, public sector reform is necessary to create and maintain an effective government structure and procedures to formulate and implement development policies and programmes. Public sector reform also includes providing training to employees, improvement in the delivery of public services like health and security leads to efficiency and effectiveness (Kuotsai, 2007). Improvement in all the aspects mentioned above leads to efficiency and effectiveness and thus economic growth.
Finally, good governance is Consensus oriented; there are several actors and as many view points in a given society, good governance requires mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what is in the best interest of the whole community and how this can be achieved. It also requires a broad and long-term perspective on what is needed for sustainable human development and how to achieve the goals of such development. This can only result from an understanding of the historical, cultural and social contexts of a given society or community.
Observations and conclusion;
It is also important to note that though democratic good governance is very crucial in development, it also has some limitations in that the views of interest groups can submerge the implementation of major decisions in the development process. On top of that, too much political freedom can cause chaos just like what has been happening in Uganda.
Nevertheless, as earlier stated, good governance is a very vital aspect in the development process because it gives the public the freedom to choose what they deem is best for them. It also helps curb the most dreaded evil-corruption. Needful to point is the fact that for democratic good governance to thrive there must be strong institutions. Free and fair elections, mechanisms and systems for accountability, transparency and participation, decentralization, access to information and communication. These four elements constitute, according to UNDP, the main avenues through which the promotion of good governance can result in the reduction of poverty levels. Governance is therefore seen as the "missing link" between anti-poverty efforts and poverty reduction, just as is democracy in the title of this workshop.
From the above discussion it is clear that good governance is ideal, which is difficult to achieve in its totality. Very few countries and societies have come close to achieving good governance in its totality. However, to ensure sustainable human development, actions must be taken to work towards this ideal with the aim of making it a reality. Finally, no matter how poverty is defined, it can be agreed that it is an issue that requires everyone’s attention. It is important that all members of our society work together to provide the opportunities for all our members to reach their full potential. It helps all of us to help one another.
REFERENCES:
Ananda, M. Bhattarai (2006) Problems of Developing Countries in Promoting Good Governance.
Baden, S., 2000, ‘Gender, Governance and the Feminization of Poverty’, Women and Political Participation: 21st Century Challenges, New York: UNDP
Human Development Report, (2000); Good Governance and Human Development
Mette, A.K. (2004). Governance: Key Concepts. Cambridge: Polity Press Goetz, A.M and Jenkins, R., 2005, Re-thinking Accountability
Nuwagaba A (2007); “Transforming Common Wealth Countries to achieve Political Economic and Human Development"
The United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) (2009), Good Governance and Its Relationship to Democracy and Economic Development.
Uganda Bureau of Statistics (2002-2005) Spatial trends of poverty and inequality in Uganda
UNDP (1997); Governance for Sustainable Human Development; UNDP'S Experience in Mozambique
UNDP (1997) Governance for Sustainable Human Development. United Nations Development Programme
Internet sources;
http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/CAFRAD/UNPAN008710.pdf Saturday, October 24, 2009
http://www.monitor.co.ug/artman/publish/news/Poverty_bites_as_Ugandans_struggle_t _live_another_day_93478.shtml Saturday, October 24, 2009
Uganda-Is it a Model for Good Governance in Africa? Muwonge, Dona October 31, 2009.
What is Good Governance? 2009. United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP).
http://www.unescap.org/pdd/prs/projectactivities/ongoing/gg/governance.pdf October 31, 2009
MA DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
NATAMBA SHADRACK
Question: ?
The conceptual understanding of the Key words- poverty and Good Governance
According to the World Bank Organization poverty is described as: “Poverty is hunger, poverty is lack of shelter, poverty is being sick and not being able to see a doctor, poverty is not having access to school and not knowing how to read. Poverty is not having a job, is fear for the future, living one day at a time and not having right
Poverty has many faces, changing from place to place and across time, and has been described in many ways. Most often, poverty is a situation people want to escape. So poverty is a call to action -- for the poor and the wealthy alike -- a call to change the world so that many more may have enough to eat, adequate shelter, access to education and health, protection from violence, and a voice in what happens in their communities (Nuwagaba A 2007).
In addition to a lack of money, poverty is about not being able to participate in recreational activities; not being able to send children on a day trip with their schoolmates or to a birthday party; not being able to pay for medications for an illness. These are all costs of being poor. Those people who are barely able to pay for food and shelter simply cannot consider these other expenses. When people are excluded within a society, when they are not well educated and when they have a higher incidence of illness, there are negative consequences for society. We all pay the price for poverty; the increased cost on the health system, the justice system and other systems that provide supports to those living in poverty has an impact on our economy.
While much progress has been made in measuring and analyzing poverty, Nuwagaba A (2009), argues that 80% of the people in Masaka district in Uganda use “Munaku Tadoba” candles for lighting. The World Bank Organization is doing more work to identify indicators for the other dimensions of poverty. This work includes identifying social indicators to track education, health, access to services, vulnerability, and social exclusion. It is therefore, important to note that this animal called ‘Poverty’ can easily be identified than defining and there is no single factor that can be attributed to causing poverty, and that its results are different in every case. Poverty varies considerably
depending on the situation for instance, feeling poor in Canada is different from feeling poor in Uganda. The differences between rich and poor within the borders of a country can also be great despite the many definitions, one thing is certain; poverty is a complex societal issue.
According to UNDP (1997); UNDP'S Experience in Mozambique, Governance can be defined as "the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority in the management of a country's affairs at all levels. Good Governance comprises the complex mechanisms, processes and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, mediate their differences and exercise their legal rights and obligations. Good governance has many attributes. It is participatory, transparent and accountable. It is effective in making the best use of resources and is equitable. And it promotes the rule of law." Good governance has eight major characteristics and these are; participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law. It assures that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are taken into account and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making. It is also responsive to the present and future needs of society.
Source: UNDP (1997) Governance for Sustainable Human Development. United Nations Development Programme.
Good Governance is the exercise of politico-administrative and managerial authority and order which is legitimate, accountable, transparent, democratic, efficient and equitable in resource allocation and utilization, and responsive to the critical needs of promoting human welfare and positive transformation of society. It manifests itself through benchmarks which include a constitution, pillars of the state derived from the constitution, mechanisms for checks and balances on governments, efficient mechanisms of delivery of services by government, security, good leadership, the rule of law, participation by the people, freedom of expression, transparency, accountability, legitimacy, devolution of power, informed citizenry, strong civil society, protection of basic human rights, regular free and fair elections, good international relations, political stability, protection of property and life.
Despite improvements registered in recent years in terms of economic growth, which President Museveni, during his Independence Day message on October 9 2009 said was growing at 7% GDP, many seem to be living in the shadows of these impressive figures. But Mr. Museveni said 23 years ago, the average annual income of a Ugandan was $264, today every citizen, he said has some $1.4 (about Shs3,500.) in their pockets daily, adding to some $504 a year. For example, the latest Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) report titled “Spatial trends of poverty and inequality in Uganda 2002-2005” shows that the proportion of Ugandans still living in absolute poverty is 31 percent (about 9 million people), with the majority of these found in the east and northern regions. This, however, according to the report is an improvement from 39 per cent of people who were living in abject/horrible poverty in 2002.
Development experts think the fight has not reached the poverty heartland. According to Prof. Augustus Nuwagaba from Makerere University, who has done wide consultancy on poverty eradication in Africa said “the rapid economic growth that the country is experiencing is not translating into better life for most of its citizens, the economic growth which should be benefiting the whole country is being enjoyed by a few people. It hasn’t been distributed evenly,” Monitor Saturday, October 24, 2009
According to the UBOS report, in all the four regions of the country, the rural poverty rate is higher than the urban poverty rate, usually ranging between 19.3 per cent and 65 per cent for rural areas and less than 25 per cent for urban areas, except northern Uganda where urban poverty is at 39.7 percent. In terms of the poverty gap, the report says the north still reported a high gap of 23.5 per cent compared to only 4.52 per cent in western Uganda.
A 2007 UNDP midterm report on Uganda’s performance on the MDGs shows that the country is on track to meet its goal of cutting poverty by 2015, but it’s threatened by several factors including low agricultural production and a fast growing population. The population growth stands at 3.2 per cent annually. This means that the population doubles every 20 years, and by 2025, it is expected to have grown to 56 million people.
The theoretical link between good governance and poverty is that Good governance is founded on citizens’ ability to claim entitlements in three broad areas: the right to participate in public decision-making; the inclusion of people’s needs and interests in policy; and the allocation of resources (Baden 2000. The level of each of these above characteristics will determine the level of poverty alleviation.
The linkages between good governance and poverty;
First of all, accountability at the national and local level is very important as far as poverty is concerned. Through general elections all citizens, including the poor and marginalized, can exercise their basic democratic right to make their voice heard and influence the direction of public policy. Accountability, however, comes not only from voting every few years, but also through the establishment of appropriate systems of monitoring and control that allow for a fair and transparent allocation of government resources. Lack of accountability means that the poor pay a particularly high price for corruption, as they often lack the power and the knowledge to avoid paying bribes and to defend themselves and their own rights.
Another way of promoting accountability is through participation mechanisms, as the poor are likely to benefit mostly from programs that they have helped design and implement, and over which they have some degree of control (Mette, A.K. 2004)).
Related to the above, the Human Development Report (2000) states that accountability is about power; it is not just about having a voice in decision making but about making the leaders accountable. When leaders became responsible about the decisions and actions they make which should be pro-poor. The World Bank for example estimates that over $300 million dollars is lost to corruption annually in Uganda. . This has perpetuated poverty in many ways and it is the reason for the persistent poverty in the country. If people held leaders accountable, then they would not squander or misallocate resources and if these resources are put into right use, then there will be reduced levels of poverty in Uganda
Secondly, Participation; is very paramount in as far as poverty reduction is concerned. The level of participation determines how much the planners can be able to put into implementation and off-course this is a road map to economic development (UNESCAP 2009). This could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. It is important to point out that participation does not necessarily mean that the concerns of the most vulnerable in society would be taken into consideration in decision making. It also gives the people a sense of ownership thus making policies and development programmes more sustainable.
Human development; it is good governance that facilitates human development which is a core principle in development. Human development is about expanding people’s functioning’s and capabilities (Human Development Report; 2000) and it goes beyond mere/sheer rights to freedom, to education, to health, among other basic needs to a level where one is able to participate in decision making and the general development process. If there is good governance, services like health, education and population growth and employment will be provided to the people and the moment they are empowered to know what should be done, then poverty will be gradually reduced. A high population for example puts a lot of strain on the available resources, services and facilities which directly hampers economic development (Abdellatif, 2003:15).
Legal Rights and Access to Justice; Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It also requires full protection of human rights, particularly
those of minorities. Impartial enforcement of laws requires an independent judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force. Poor and disempowered groups such as women encounter discrimination within legal governance systems at three levels: 1) laws (discriminatory laws on property ownership or absence of anti-violence legislation); 2) legal systems (information requirements or evidence procedures); and cultural attitudes (male bias of judges and lawyers). However, reform of democratic structures and the drawing up of constitutions in the developing world have provided women’s movements with an entry point in which to ensure their rights are embedded in legislation (Baden 2000). Nonetheless, such legislation often adds to ‘parallel’ legal systems where new sets of legal rights co-exist alongside other formal and informal or customary laws. The use of customary law is more common the farther individuals are from the centre of the state – both geographically and in terms of their socio-economic position. It will therefore be more likely to impact on the lives of poor people than ‘formal’ law. Customary law is also particularly significant for women’s access to justice since it tends to govern family or domestic issues such as marriage, divorce, adultery and gender-based violence.
Research indicates that when cases are tried through customary law there may be even less chance of women receiving justice than in the case of formal legal systems (Nyamu-Musembi 2005).
Decentralization has generally been considered to be a positive step towards making governments more accountable to the poor by bringing decision-making down to a local level. Research has show that where resources are available, decentralisation has resulted in the greater participation of poor and marginalised groups of people such as women in decision making, and in monitoring the activities of local governments. However it must be remembered that local service providers are not in charge of national budgets and some commentators have argued that poverty reduction measures are therefore better dealt with at the national level. It has also enhanced service delivery and the development of a culture of participation by the people and accountability toward the people. Thus, decentralization and local governments play important roles in a number of the key priority areas including: 1) Promoting democracy; 2) Improving local ownership of development efforts and; 3) Enhancing accountability and the fight against corruption.
In addition, democratic opportunities depend significantly on the Poor’s access to information and communication, especially in the light of the great potential created by more recent technologies, access to which remains highly unequal. Expanding such access can enhance people's capacity to understand issues, to participate in public life more constructively, and to create important linkages that can result in coalitions for change. In this sense the potential role of information and communication in the democratization of governance structures is great.
Good governance promotes stability of governments and this creates a good environment for investment, and this is a source of revenue for the country and provides job opportunities. The level at which government can attract both foreign and local investor determines how much jobs will be created, the production of goods and services and how much revenue that will be collected. On top of the above, when a country is politically stable, its people can participate in production of goods and services and at the end this can boost the country’s economy.
Efficiency and effectiveness; Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making the best use of resources at their disposal. The concept of efficiency in the context of good governance also covers the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment (UNESCAP 2009). Similarly, under good governance, public sector reform is necessary to create and maintain an effective government structure and procedures to formulate and implement development policies and programmes. Public sector reform also includes providing training to employees, improvement in the delivery of public services like health and security leads to efficiency and effectiveness (Kuotsai, 2007). Improvement in all the aspects mentioned above leads to efficiency and effectiveness and thus economic growth.
Finally, good governance is Consensus oriented; there are several actors and as many view points in a given society, good governance requires mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what is in the best interest of the whole community and how this can be achieved. It also requires a broad and long-term perspective on what is needed for sustainable human development and how to achieve the goals of such development. This can only result from an understanding of the historical, cultural and social contexts of a given society or community.
Observations and conclusion;
It is also important to note that though democratic good governance is very crucial in development, it also has some limitations in that the views of interest groups can submerge the implementation of major decisions in the development process. On top of that, too much political freedom can cause chaos just like what has been happening in Uganda.
Nevertheless, as earlier stated, good governance is a very vital aspect in the development process because it gives the public the freedom to choose what they deem is best for them. It also helps curb the most dreaded evil-corruption. Needful to point is the fact that for democratic good governance to thrive there must be strong institutions. Free and fair elections, mechanisms and systems for accountability, transparency and participation, decentralization, access to information and communication. These four elements constitute, according to UNDP, the main avenues through which the promotion of good governance can result in the reduction of poverty levels. Governance is therefore seen as the "missing link" between anti-poverty efforts and poverty reduction, just as is democracy in the title of this workshop.
From the above discussion it is clear that good governance is ideal, which is difficult to achieve in its totality. Very few countries and societies have come close to achieving good governance in its totality. However, to ensure sustainable human development, actions must be taken to work towards this ideal with the aim of making it a reality. Finally, no matter how poverty is defined, it can be agreed that it is an issue that requires everyone’s attention. It is important that all members of our society work together to provide the opportunities for all our members to reach their full potential. It helps all of us to help one another.
REFERENCES:
Ananda, M. Bhattarai (2006) Problems of Developing Countries in Promoting Good Governance.
Baden, S., 2000, ‘Gender, Governance and the Feminization of Poverty’, Women and Political Participation: 21st Century Challenges, New York: UNDP
Human Development Report, (2000); Good Governance and Human Development
Mette, A.K. (2004). Governance: Key Concepts. Cambridge: Polity Press Goetz, A.M and Jenkins, R., 2005, Re-thinking Accountability
Nuwagaba A (2007); “Transforming Common Wealth Countries to achieve Political Economic and Human Development"
The United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) (2009), Good Governance and Its Relationship to Democracy and Economic Development.
Uganda Bureau of Statistics (2002-2005) Spatial trends of poverty and inequality in Uganda
UNDP (1997); Governance for Sustainable Human Development; UNDP'S Experience in Mozambique
UNDP (1997) Governance for Sustainable Human Development. United Nations Development Programme
Internet sources;
http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/CAFRAD/UNPAN008710.pdf Saturday, October 24, 2009
http://www.monitor.co.ug/artman/publish/news/Poverty_bites_as_Ugandans_struggle_t _live_another_day_93478.shtml Saturday, October 24, 2009
Uganda-Is it a Model for Good Governance in Africa? Muwonge, Dona October 31, 2009.
What is Good Governance? 2009. United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP).
http://www.unescap.org/pdd/prs/projectactivities/ongoing/gg/governance.pdf October 31, 2009
BASIC CONCEPTS IN DEVELOPMENT
UGANDA CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY – MUKONO
MA DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
NATAMBA SHADRACK
Question: What are links between poverty and good governance?
The conceptual understanding of the Key words- poverty and Good Governance
According to the World Bank Organization poverty is described as: “Poverty is hunger, poverty is lack of shelter, poverty is being sick and not being able to see a doctor, poverty is not having access to school and not knowing how to read. Poverty is not having a job, is fear for the future, living one day at a time and not having right
Poverty has many faces, changing from place to place and across time, and has been described in many ways. Most often, poverty is a situation people want to escape. So poverty is a call to action -- for the poor and the wealthy alike -- a call to change the world so that many more may have enough to eat, adequate shelter, access to education and health, protection from violence, and a voice in what happens in their communities (Nuwagaba A 2007).
In addition to a lack of money, poverty is about not being able to participate in recreational activities; not being able to send children on a day trip with their schoolmates or to a birthday party; not being able to pay for medications for an illness. These are all costs of being poor. Those people who are barely able to pay for food and shelter simply cannot consider these other expenses. When people are excluded within a society, when they are not well educated and when they have a higher incidence of illness, there are negative consequences for society. We all pay the price for poverty; the increased cost on the health system, the justice system and other systems that provide supports to those living in poverty has an impact on our economy.
While much progress has been made in measuring and analyzing poverty, Nuwagaba A (2009), argues that 80% of the people in Masaka district in Uganda use “Munaku Tadoba” candles for lighting. The World Bank Organization is doing more work to identify indicators for the other dimensions of poverty. This work includes identifying social indicators to track education, health, access to services, vulnerability, and social exclusion. It is therefore, important to note that this animal called ‘Poverty’ can easily be identified than defining and there is no single factor that can be attributed to causing poverty, and that its results are different in every case. Poverty varies considerably
depending on the situation for instance, feeling poor in Canada is different from feeling poor in Uganda. The differences between rich and poor within the borders of a country can also be great despite the many definitions, one thing is certain; poverty is a complex societal issue.
According to UNDP (1997); UNDP'S Experience in Mozambique, Governance can be defined as "the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority in the management of a country's affairs at all levels. Good Governance comprises the complex mechanisms, processes and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, mediate their differences and exercise their legal rights and obligations. Good governance has many attributes. It is participatory, transparent and accountable. It is effective in making the best use of resources and is equitable. And it promotes the rule of law." Good governance has eight major characteristics and these are; participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law. It assures that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are taken into account and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making. It is also responsive to the present and future needs of society.
Source: UNDP (1997) Governance for Sustainable Human Development. United Nations Development Programme.
Good Governance is the exercise of politico-administrative and managerial authority and order which is legitimate, accountable, transparent, democratic, efficient and equitable in resource allocation and utilization, and responsive to the critical needs of promoting human welfare and positive transformation of society. It manifests itself through benchmarks which include a constitution, pillars of the state derived from the constitution, mechanisms for checks and balances on governments, efficient mechanisms of delivery of services by government, security, good leadership, the rule of law, participation by the people, freedom of expression, transparency, accountability, legitimacy, devolution of power, informed citizenry, strong civil society, protection of basic human rights, regular free and fair elections, good international relations, political stability, protection of property and life.
Despite improvements registered in recent years in terms of economic growth, which President Museveni, during his Independence Day message on October 9 2009 said was growing at 7% GDP, many seem to be living in the shadows of these impressive figures. But Mr. Museveni said 23 years ago, the average annual income of a Ugandan was $264, today every citizen, he said has some $1.4 (about Shs3,500.) in their pockets daily, adding to some $504 a year. For example, the latest Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) report titled “Spatial trends of poverty and inequality in Uganda 2002-2005” shows that the proportion of Ugandans still living in absolute poverty is 31 percent (about 9 million people), with the majority of these found in the east and northern regions. This, however, according to the report is an improvement from 39 per cent of people who were living in abject/horrible poverty in 2002.
Development experts think the fight has not reached the poverty heartland. According to Prof. Augustus Nuwagaba from Makerere University, who has done wide consultancy on poverty eradication in Africa said “the rapid economic growth that the country is experiencing is not translating into better life for most of its citizens, the economic growth which should be benefiting the whole country is being enjoyed by a few people. It hasn’t been distributed evenly,” Monitor Saturday, October 24, 2009
According to the UBOS report, in all the four regions of the country, the rural poverty rate is higher than the urban poverty rate, usually ranging between 19.3 per cent and 65 per cent for rural areas and less than 25 per cent for urban areas, except northern Uganda where urban poverty is at 39.7 percent. In terms of the poverty gap, the report says the north still reported a high gap of 23.5 per cent compared to only 4.52 per cent in western Uganda.
A 2007 UNDP midterm report on Uganda’s performance on the MDGs shows that the country is on track to meet its goal of cutting poverty by 2015, but it’s threatened by several factors including low agricultural production and a fast growing population. The population growth stands at 3.2 per cent annually. This means that the population doubles every 20 years, and by 2025, it is expected to have grown to 56 million people.
The theoretical link between good governance and poverty is that Good governance is founded on citizens’ ability to claim entitlements in three broad areas: the right to participate in public decision-making; the inclusion of people’s needs and interests in policy; and the allocation of resources (Baden 2000. The level of each of these above characteristics will determine the level of poverty alleviation.
The linkages between good governance and poverty;
First of all, accountability at the national and local level is very important as far as poverty is concerned. Through general elections all citizens, including the poor and marginalized, can exercise their basic democratic right to make their voice heard and influence the direction of public policy. Accountability, however, comes not only from voting every few years, but also through the establishment of appropriate systems of monitoring and control that allow for a fair and transparent allocation of government resources. Lack of accountability means that the poor pay a particularly high price for corruption, as they often lack the power and the knowledge to avoid paying bribes and to defend themselves and their own rights. Another way of promoting accountability is through participation mechanisms, as the poor are likely to benefit mostly from programs that they have helped design and implement, and over which they have some degree of control (Mette, A.K. 2004)).
Related to the above, the Human Development Report (2000) states that accountability is about power; it is not just about having a voice in decision making but about making the leaders accountable. When leaders became responsible about the decisions and actions they make which should be pro-poor. The World Bank for example estimates that over $300 million dollars is lost to corruption annually in Uganda. . This has perpetuated poverty in many ways and it is the reason for the persistent poverty in the country. If people held leaders accountable, then they would not squander or misallocate resources and if these resources are put into right use, then there will be reduced levels of poverty in Uganda
Secondly, Participation; is very paramount in as far as poverty reduction is concerned. The level of participation determines how much the planners can be able to put into implementation and off-course this is a road map to economic development (UNESCAP 2009). This could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. It is important to point out that participation does not necessarily mean that the concerns of the most vulnerable in society would be taken into consideration in decision making. It also gives the people a sense of ownership thus making policies and development programmes more sustainable.
Human development; it is good governance that facilitates human development which is a core principle in development. Human development is about expanding people’s functioning’s and capabilities (Human Development Report; 2000) and it goes beyond mere/sheer rights to freedom, to education, to health, among other basic needs to a level where one is able to participate in decision making and the general development process. If there is good governance, services like health, education and population growth and employment will be provided to the people and the moment they are empowered to know what should be done, then poverty will be gradually reduced. A high population for example puts a lot of strain on the available resources, services and facilities which directly hampers economic development (Abdellatif, 2003:15).
Legal Rights and Access to Justice; Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It also requires full protection of human rights, particularly
those of minorities. Impartial enforcement of laws requires an independent judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force. Poor and disempowered groups such as women encounter discrimination within legal governance systems at three levels: 1) laws (discriminatory laws on property ownership or absence of anti-violence legislation); 2) legal systems (information requirements or evidence procedures); and cultural attitudes (male bias of judges and lawyers). However, reform of democratic structures and the drawing up of constitutions in the developing world have provided women’s movements with an entry point in which to ensure their rights are embedded in legislation (Baden 2000). Nonetheless, such legislation often adds to ‘parallel’ legal systems where new sets of legal rights co-exist alongside other formal and informal or customary laws. The use of customary law is more common the farther individuals are from the centre of the state – both geographically and in terms of their socio-economic position. It will therefore be more likely to impact on the lives of poor people than ‘formal’ law. Customary law is also particularly significant for women’s access to justice since it tends to govern family or domestic issues such as marriage, divorce, adultery and gender-based violence.
Research indicates that when cases are tried through customary law there may be even less chance of women receiving justice than in the case of formal legal systems (Nyamu-Musembi 2005).
Decentralization has generally been considered to be a positive step towards making governments more accountable to the poor by bringing decision-making down to a local level. Research has show that where resources are available, decentralisation has resulted in the greater participation of poor and marginalised groups of people such as women in decision making, and in monitoring the activities of local governments. However it must be remembered that local service providers are not in charge of national budgets and some commentators have argued that poverty reduction measures are therefore better dealt with at the national level. It has also enhanced service delivery and the development of a culture of participation by the people and accountability toward the people. Thus, decentralization and local governments play important roles in a number of the key priority areas including: 1) Promoting democracy; 2) Improving local ownership of development efforts and; 3) Enhancing accountability and the fight against corruption.
In addition, democratic opportunities depend significantly on the Poor’s access to information and communication, especially in the light of the great potential created by more recent technologies, access to which remains highly unequal. Expanding such access can enhance people's capacity to understand issues, to participate in public life more constructively, and to create important linkages that can result in coalitions for change. In this sense the potential role of information and communication in the democratization of governance structures is great.
Good governance promotes stability of governments and this creates a good environment for investment, and this is a source of revenue for the country and provides job opportunities. The level at which government can attract both foreign and local investor determines how much jobs will be created, the production of goods and services and how much revenue that will be collected. On top of the above, when a country is politically stable, its people can participate in production of goods and services and at the end this can boost the country’s economy.
Efficiency and effectiveness; Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making the best use of resources at their disposal. The concept of efficiency in the context of good governance also covers the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment (UNESCAP 2009). Similarly, under good governance, public sector reform is necessary to create and maintain an effective government structure and procedures to formulate and implement development policies and programmes. Public sector reform also includes providing training to employees, improvement in the delivery of public services like health and security leads to efficiency and effectiveness (Kuotsai, 2007). Improvement in all the aspects mentioned above leads to efficiency and effectiveness and thus economic growth.
Finally, good governance is Consensus oriented; there are several actors and as many view points in a given society, good governance requires mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what is in the best interest of
the whole community and how this can be achieved. It also requires a broad and long-term perspective on what is needed for sustainable human development and how to achieve the goals of such development. This can only result from an understanding of the historical, cultural and social contexts of a given society or community.
Observations and conclusion;
It is also important to note that though democratic good governance is very crucial in development, it also has some limitations in that the views of interest groups can submerge the implementation of major decisions in the development process. On top of that, too much political freedom can cause chaos just like what has been happening in Uganda.
Nevertheless, as earlier stated, good governance is a very vital aspect in the development process because it gives the public the freedom to choose what they deem is best for them. It also helps curb the most dreaded evil-corruption. Needful to point is the fact that for democratic good governance to thrive there must be strong institutions. Free and fair elections, mechanisms and systems for accountability, transparency and participation, decentralization, access to information and communication. These four elements constitute, according to UNDP, the main avenues through which the promotion of good governance can result in the reduction of poverty levels. Governance is therefore seen as the "missing link" between anti-poverty efforts and poverty reduction, just as is democracy in the title of this workshop.
From the above discussion it is clear that good governance is ideal, which is difficult to achieve in its totality. Very few countries and societies have come close to achieving good governance in its totality. However, to ensure sustainable human development, actions must be taken to work towards this ideal with the aim of making it a reality. Finally, no matter how poverty is defined, it can be agreed that it is an issue that requires everyone’s attention. It is important that all members of our society work together to provide the opportunities for all our members to reach their full potential. It helps all of us to help one another.
REFERENCES:
Ananda, M. Bhattarai (2006) Problems of Developing Countries in Promoting Good Governance.
Baden, S., 2000, ‘Gender, Governance and the Feminization of Poverty’, Women and Political Participation: 21st Century Challenges, New York: UNDP
Human Development Report, (2000); Good Governance and Human Development
Mette, A.K. (2004). Governance: Key Concepts. Cambridge: Polity Press Goetz, A.M and Jenkins, R., 2005, Re-thinking Accountability
Nuwagaba A (2007); “Transforming Common Wealth Countries to achieve Political Economic and Human Development"
The United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) (2009), Good Governance and Its Relationship to Democracy and Economic Development.
Uganda Bureau of Statistics (2002-2005) Spatial trends of poverty and inequality in Uganda
UNDP (1997); Governance for Sustainable Human Development; UNDP'S Experience in Mozambique
UNDP (1997) Governance for Sustainable Human Development. United Nations Development Programme
Internet sources;
http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/CAFRAD/UNPAN008710.pdf Saturday, October 24, 2009
http://www.monitor.co.ug/artman/publish/news/Poverty_bites_as_Ugandans_struggle_t _live_another_day_93478.shtml Saturday, October 24, 2009
Uganda-Is it a Model for Good Governance in Africa? Muwonge, Dona October 31, 2009.
What is Good Governance? 2009. United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP).
http://www.unescap.org/pdd/prs/projectactivities/ongoing/gg/governance.pdf October 31, 2009
MA DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
NATAMBA SHADRACK
Question: What are links between poverty and good governance?
The conceptual understanding of the Key words- poverty and Good Governance
According to the World Bank Organization poverty is described as: “Poverty is hunger, poverty is lack of shelter, poverty is being sick and not being able to see a doctor, poverty is not having access to school and not knowing how to read. Poverty is not having a job, is fear for the future, living one day at a time and not having right
Poverty has many faces, changing from place to place and across time, and has been described in many ways. Most often, poverty is a situation people want to escape. So poverty is a call to action -- for the poor and the wealthy alike -- a call to change the world so that many more may have enough to eat, adequate shelter, access to education and health, protection from violence, and a voice in what happens in their communities (Nuwagaba A 2007).
In addition to a lack of money, poverty is about not being able to participate in recreational activities; not being able to send children on a day trip with their schoolmates or to a birthday party; not being able to pay for medications for an illness. These are all costs of being poor. Those people who are barely able to pay for food and shelter simply cannot consider these other expenses. When people are excluded within a society, when they are not well educated and when they have a higher incidence of illness, there are negative consequences for society. We all pay the price for poverty; the increased cost on the health system, the justice system and other systems that provide supports to those living in poverty has an impact on our economy.
While much progress has been made in measuring and analyzing poverty, Nuwagaba A (2009), argues that 80% of the people in Masaka district in Uganda use “Munaku Tadoba” candles for lighting. The World Bank Organization is doing more work to identify indicators for the other dimensions of poverty. This work includes identifying social indicators to track education, health, access to services, vulnerability, and social exclusion. It is therefore, important to note that this animal called ‘Poverty’ can easily be identified than defining and there is no single factor that can be attributed to causing poverty, and that its results are different in every case. Poverty varies considerably
depending on the situation for instance, feeling poor in Canada is different from feeling poor in Uganda. The differences between rich and poor within the borders of a country can also be great despite the many definitions, one thing is certain; poverty is a complex societal issue.
According to UNDP (1997); UNDP'S Experience in Mozambique, Governance can be defined as "the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority in the management of a country's affairs at all levels. Good Governance comprises the complex mechanisms, processes and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, mediate their differences and exercise their legal rights and obligations. Good governance has many attributes. It is participatory, transparent and accountable. It is effective in making the best use of resources and is equitable. And it promotes the rule of law." Good governance has eight major characteristics and these are; participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law. It assures that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are taken into account and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making. It is also responsive to the present and future needs of society.
Source: UNDP (1997) Governance for Sustainable Human Development. United Nations Development Programme.
Good Governance is the exercise of politico-administrative and managerial authority and order which is legitimate, accountable, transparent, democratic, efficient and equitable in resource allocation and utilization, and responsive to the critical needs of promoting human welfare and positive transformation of society. It manifests itself through benchmarks which include a constitution, pillars of the state derived from the constitution, mechanisms for checks and balances on governments, efficient mechanisms of delivery of services by government, security, good leadership, the rule of law, participation by the people, freedom of expression, transparency, accountability, legitimacy, devolution of power, informed citizenry, strong civil society, protection of basic human rights, regular free and fair elections, good international relations, political stability, protection of property and life.
Despite improvements registered in recent years in terms of economic growth, which President Museveni, during his Independence Day message on October 9 2009 said was growing at 7% GDP, many seem to be living in the shadows of these impressive figures. But Mr. Museveni said 23 years ago, the average annual income of a Ugandan was $264, today every citizen, he said has some $1.4 (about Shs3,500.) in their pockets daily, adding to some $504 a year. For example, the latest Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) report titled “Spatial trends of poverty and inequality in Uganda 2002-2005” shows that the proportion of Ugandans still living in absolute poverty is 31 percent (about 9 million people), with the majority of these found in the east and northern regions. This, however, according to the report is an improvement from 39 per cent of people who were living in abject/horrible poverty in 2002.
Development experts think the fight has not reached the poverty heartland. According to Prof. Augustus Nuwagaba from Makerere University, who has done wide consultancy on poverty eradication in Africa said “the rapid economic growth that the country is experiencing is not translating into better life for most of its citizens, the economic growth which should be benefiting the whole country is being enjoyed by a few people. It hasn’t been distributed evenly,” Monitor Saturday, October 24, 2009
According to the UBOS report, in all the four regions of the country, the rural poverty rate is higher than the urban poverty rate, usually ranging between 19.3 per cent and 65 per cent for rural areas and less than 25 per cent for urban areas, except northern Uganda where urban poverty is at 39.7 percent. In terms of the poverty gap, the report says the north still reported a high gap of 23.5 per cent compared to only 4.52 per cent in western Uganda.
A 2007 UNDP midterm report on Uganda’s performance on the MDGs shows that the country is on track to meet its goal of cutting poverty by 2015, but it’s threatened by several factors including low agricultural production and a fast growing population. The population growth stands at 3.2 per cent annually. This means that the population doubles every 20 years, and by 2025, it is expected to have grown to 56 million people.
The theoretical link between good governance and poverty is that Good governance is founded on citizens’ ability to claim entitlements in three broad areas: the right to participate in public decision-making; the inclusion of people’s needs and interests in policy; and the allocation of resources (Baden 2000. The level of each of these above characteristics will determine the level of poverty alleviation.
The linkages between good governance and poverty;
First of all, accountability at the national and local level is very important as far as poverty is concerned. Through general elections all citizens, including the poor and marginalized, can exercise their basic democratic right to make their voice heard and influence the direction of public policy. Accountability, however, comes not only from voting every few years, but also through the establishment of appropriate systems of monitoring and control that allow for a fair and transparent allocation of government resources. Lack of accountability means that the poor pay a particularly high price for corruption, as they often lack the power and the knowledge to avoid paying bribes and to defend themselves and their own rights. Another way of promoting accountability is through participation mechanisms, as the poor are likely to benefit mostly from programs that they have helped design and implement, and over which they have some degree of control (Mette, A.K. 2004)).
Related to the above, the Human Development Report (2000) states that accountability is about power; it is not just about having a voice in decision making but about making the leaders accountable. When leaders became responsible about the decisions and actions they make which should be pro-poor. The World Bank for example estimates that over $300 million dollars is lost to corruption annually in Uganda. . This has perpetuated poverty in many ways and it is the reason for the persistent poverty in the country. If people held leaders accountable, then they would not squander or misallocate resources and if these resources are put into right use, then there will be reduced levels of poverty in Uganda
Secondly, Participation; is very paramount in as far as poverty reduction is concerned. The level of participation determines how much the planners can be able to put into implementation and off-course this is a road map to economic development (UNESCAP 2009). This could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. It is important to point out that participation does not necessarily mean that the concerns of the most vulnerable in society would be taken into consideration in decision making. It also gives the people a sense of ownership thus making policies and development programmes more sustainable.
Human development; it is good governance that facilitates human development which is a core principle in development. Human development is about expanding people’s functioning’s and capabilities (Human Development Report; 2000) and it goes beyond mere/sheer rights to freedom, to education, to health, among other basic needs to a level where one is able to participate in decision making and the general development process. If there is good governance, services like health, education and population growth and employment will be provided to the people and the moment they are empowered to know what should be done, then poverty will be gradually reduced. A high population for example puts a lot of strain on the available resources, services and facilities which directly hampers economic development (Abdellatif, 2003:15).
Legal Rights and Access to Justice; Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It also requires full protection of human rights, particularly
those of minorities. Impartial enforcement of laws requires an independent judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force. Poor and disempowered groups such as women encounter discrimination within legal governance systems at three levels: 1) laws (discriminatory laws on property ownership or absence of anti-violence legislation); 2) legal systems (information requirements or evidence procedures); and cultural attitudes (male bias of judges and lawyers). However, reform of democratic structures and the drawing up of constitutions in the developing world have provided women’s movements with an entry point in which to ensure their rights are embedded in legislation (Baden 2000). Nonetheless, such legislation often adds to ‘parallel’ legal systems where new sets of legal rights co-exist alongside other formal and informal or customary laws. The use of customary law is more common the farther individuals are from the centre of the state – both geographically and in terms of their socio-economic position. It will therefore be more likely to impact on the lives of poor people than ‘formal’ law. Customary law is also particularly significant for women’s access to justice since it tends to govern family or domestic issues such as marriage, divorce, adultery and gender-based violence.
Research indicates that when cases are tried through customary law there may be even less chance of women receiving justice than in the case of formal legal systems (Nyamu-Musembi 2005).
Decentralization has generally been considered to be a positive step towards making governments more accountable to the poor by bringing decision-making down to a local level. Research has show that where resources are available, decentralisation has resulted in the greater participation of poor and marginalised groups of people such as women in decision making, and in monitoring the activities of local governments. However it must be remembered that local service providers are not in charge of national budgets and some commentators have argued that poverty reduction measures are therefore better dealt with at the national level. It has also enhanced service delivery and the development of a culture of participation by the people and accountability toward the people. Thus, decentralization and local governments play important roles in a number of the key priority areas including: 1) Promoting democracy; 2) Improving local ownership of development efforts and; 3) Enhancing accountability and the fight against corruption.
In addition, democratic opportunities depend significantly on the Poor’s access to information and communication, especially in the light of the great potential created by more recent technologies, access to which remains highly unequal. Expanding such access can enhance people's capacity to understand issues, to participate in public life more constructively, and to create important linkages that can result in coalitions for change. In this sense the potential role of information and communication in the democratization of governance structures is great.
Good governance promotes stability of governments and this creates a good environment for investment, and this is a source of revenue for the country and provides job opportunities. The level at which government can attract both foreign and local investor determines how much jobs will be created, the production of goods and services and how much revenue that will be collected. On top of the above, when a country is politically stable, its people can participate in production of goods and services and at the end this can boost the country’s economy.
Efficiency and effectiveness; Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making the best use of resources at their disposal. The concept of efficiency in the context of good governance also covers the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment (UNESCAP 2009). Similarly, under good governance, public sector reform is necessary to create and maintain an effective government structure and procedures to formulate and implement development policies and programmes. Public sector reform also includes providing training to employees, improvement in the delivery of public services like health and security leads to efficiency and effectiveness (Kuotsai, 2007). Improvement in all the aspects mentioned above leads to efficiency and effectiveness and thus economic growth.
Finally, good governance is Consensus oriented; there are several actors and as many view points in a given society, good governance requires mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what is in the best interest of
the whole community and how this can be achieved. It also requires a broad and long-term perspective on what is needed for sustainable human development and how to achieve the goals of such development. This can only result from an understanding of the historical, cultural and social contexts of a given society or community.
Observations and conclusion;
It is also important to note that though democratic good governance is very crucial in development, it also has some limitations in that the views of interest groups can submerge the implementation of major decisions in the development process. On top of that, too much political freedom can cause chaos just like what has been happening in Uganda.
Nevertheless, as earlier stated, good governance is a very vital aspect in the development process because it gives the public the freedom to choose what they deem is best for them. It also helps curb the most dreaded evil-corruption. Needful to point is the fact that for democratic good governance to thrive there must be strong institutions. Free and fair elections, mechanisms and systems for accountability, transparency and participation, decentralization, access to information and communication. These four elements constitute, according to UNDP, the main avenues through which the promotion of good governance can result in the reduction of poverty levels. Governance is therefore seen as the "missing link" between anti-poverty efforts and poverty reduction, just as is democracy in the title of this workshop.
From the above discussion it is clear that good governance is ideal, which is difficult to achieve in its totality. Very few countries and societies have come close to achieving good governance in its totality. However, to ensure sustainable human development, actions must be taken to work towards this ideal with the aim of making it a reality. Finally, no matter how poverty is defined, it can be agreed that it is an issue that requires everyone’s attention. It is important that all members of our society work together to provide the opportunities for all our members to reach their full potential. It helps all of us to help one another.
REFERENCES:
Ananda, M. Bhattarai (2006) Problems of Developing Countries in Promoting Good Governance.
Baden, S., 2000, ‘Gender, Governance and the Feminization of Poverty’, Women and Political Participation: 21st Century Challenges, New York: UNDP
Human Development Report, (2000); Good Governance and Human Development
Mette, A.K. (2004). Governance: Key Concepts. Cambridge: Polity Press Goetz, A.M and Jenkins, R., 2005, Re-thinking Accountability
Nuwagaba A (2007); “Transforming Common Wealth Countries to achieve Political Economic and Human Development"
The United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) (2009), Good Governance and Its Relationship to Democracy and Economic Development.
Uganda Bureau of Statistics (2002-2005) Spatial trends of poverty and inequality in Uganda
UNDP (1997); Governance for Sustainable Human Development; UNDP'S Experience in Mozambique
UNDP (1997) Governance for Sustainable Human Development. United Nations Development Programme
Internet sources;
http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/CAFRAD/UNPAN008710.pdf Saturday, October 24, 2009
http://www.monitor.co.ug/artman/publish/news/Poverty_bites_as_Ugandans_struggle_t _live_another_day_93478.shtml Saturday, October 24, 2009
Uganda-Is it a Model for Good Governance in Africa? Muwonge, Dona October 31, 2009.
What is Good Governance? 2009. United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP).
http://www.unescap.org/pdd/prs/projectactivities/ongoing/gg/governance.pdf October 31, 2009
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