EXAMPLE OF APA STYLE

EXAMPLE OF APA STYLE

Source: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
Summary: APA (American Psychological Association) is most commonly used to cite sources within the social sciences. This resource, revised according to the 5th edition of the APA manual, offers examples for the general format of APA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the reference page.

APA Citation BasicsWhen using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, E.g., (Jones, 1998), and a complete reference should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.
If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly quoting the material, or making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference.

In-Text Citation Capitalization, Quotes, and Italics/Underlining
• Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones.
• If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four letters long or greater within the title of a source: Permanence and Change. Exceptions apply to short words that are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs: Writing New Media, There Is Nothing Left to Lose.
(Note: in your References list, only the first word of a title will be capitalized: Writing new media.)
• When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word: Natural-Born Cyborgs.
• Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of Hitchcock's Vertigo."
• Italicize or underline the titles of longer works such as books, edited collections, movies, television series, documentaries, or albums: The Closing of the American Mind; The Wizard of Oz; Friends.
• Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles, articles from edited collections, television series episodes, and song titles: "Multimedia Narration: Constructing Possible Worlds"; "The One Where Chandler Can't Cry."
Short Quotations

If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded by "p."). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.

According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time" (p. 199). Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications does this have for teachers? If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation. She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style," (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did not offer an explanation as to why.
Long Quotations

Place direct quotations longer than 40 words in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented five spaces from the left margin. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation five spaces from the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark.
Jones's (1998) study found the following:

Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time citing sources. This difficulty could be attributed to the fact that many students failed to purchase a style manual or to ask their teacher for help. (p. 199)
Summary or Paraphrase

If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage you to also provide the page number (although it is not required.)
According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners.

APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 1998, p. 199).

In-Text Citations: Author/Authors
APA style has a series of important rules on using author names as part of the author-date system. There are additional rules for citing indirect sources, electronic sources, and sources without page numbers.
Citing an Author or Authors

A Work by Two Authors: Name both authors in the signal phrase or in the parentheses each time you cite the work. Use the word "and" between the authors' names within the text and use the ampersand in the parentheses.
Research by Wegener and Petty (1994) supports...
(Wegener & Petty, 1994)

A Work by Three to Five Authors: List all the authors in the signal phrase or in parentheses the first time you cite the source.
(Kernis, Cornell, Sun, Berry, & Harlow, 1993)
In subsequent citations, only use the first author's last name followed by "et al." in the signal phrase or in parentheses.
(Kernis et al., 1993)

In et al., et should not be followed by a period.
Six or More Authors: Use the first author's name followed by et al. in the signal phrase or in parentheses.

Harris et al. (2001) argued...(Harris et al., 2001)

Unknown Author: If the work does not have an author, cite the source by its title in the signal phrase or use the first word or two in the parentheses. Titles of books and reports are italicized or underlined; titles of articles and chapters are in quotation marks.

A similar study was done of students learning to format research papers ("Using APA," 2001). Note: In the rare case the "Anonymous" is used for the author, treat it as the author's name (Anonymous, 2001). In the reference list, use the name Anonymous as the author.

Organization as an Author: If the author is an organization or a government agency, mention the organization in the signal phrase or in the parenthetical citation the first time you cite the source.
According to the American Psychological Association (2000),...
If the organization has a well-known abbreviation, include the abbreviation in brackets the first time the source is cited and then use only the abbreviation in later citations.

First citation: (Mothers Against Drunk Driving [MADD], 2000)
Second citation: (MADD, 2000)
Two or More Works in the Same Parentheses: When your parenthetical citation includes two or more works, order them the same way they appear in the reference list, separated by a semi-colon.(Berndt, 2002; Harlow, 1983)
Authors with the Same Last Name: To prevent confusion, use first initials with the last names.(E. Johnson, 2001; L. Johnson, 1998)

Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year: If you have two sources by the same author in the same year, use lower-case letters (a, b, c) with the year to order the entries in the reference list. Use the lower-case letters with the year in the in-text citation.Research by Berndt (1981a) illustrated that...
Introductions, Prefaces, Forewords, and Afterwards: When citing an Introduction, Preface, Foreword, or Afterward in-text, cite the appropriate author and year as usual.(Funk & Kolln, 1992)

Personal Communication: For interviews, letters, e-mails, and other person-to-person communication, cite the communicator’s name, the fact that it was personal communication, and the date of the communication. Do not include personal communication in the reference list.
(E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001).
A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2002).
Citing Indirect Sources
If you use a source that was cited in another source, name the original source in your signal phrase. List the secondary source in your reference list and include the secondary source in the parentheses.
Johnson argued that... (as cited in Smith, 2003, p. 102).
Note: When citing material in parentheses, set off the citation with a comma, as above.
Electronic Sources
If possible, cite an electronic document the same as any other document by using the author-date style.
Kenneth (2000) explained...
Unknown Author and Unknown Date: If no author or date is given, use the title in your signal phrase or the first word or two of the title in the parentheses and use the abbreviation "n.d." (for "no date").
Another study of students and research decisions discovered that students succeeded with tutoring ("Tutoring and APA," n.d.).
Sources without Page Numbers
When an electronic source lacks page numbers, you should try to include information that will help readers find the passage being cited. When an electronic document has numbered paragraphs, use the ¶ symbol, or the abbreviation "para." followed by the paragraph number (Hall, 2001, ¶ 5) or (Hall, 2001, para. 5). If the paragraphs are not numbered and the document includes headings, provide the appropriate heading and specify the paragraph under that heading. Note that in some electronic sources, like Web pages, people can use the Find function in their browser to locate any passages you cite.
According to Smith (1997), ... (Mind over Matter section, para. 6). Do not cite page numbers.

Footnotes and Endnotes
APA does not recommend the use of footnotes and endnotes because they are often expensive for publishers to reproduce. However, if explanatory notes still prove necessary to your document, APA details the use of two types of footnotes: content and copyright.
When using either type of footnote, insert a number formatted in superscript following almost any punctuation mark. Footnote numbers should not follow dashes ( — ), and if they appear in a sentence in parentheses, the footnote number should be inserted within the parentheses.
Scientists examined—over several years1—the fossilized remains of the wooly-wooly yak.2 (These have now been transferred to the Chauan Museum.3)
All footnotes should appear on the final page of your document (usually this is after the References page). Center the word “Footnotes” at the top of the page. Indent five spaces on the first line of each footnote. Then, follow normal paragraph spacing rules. Double-space throughout.
1 While the method of examination for the wooly-wooly yak provides important insights to this research, this document does not focus on this particular species.
Content Notes
Content Notes provide supplemental information to your readers. When providing Content Notes, be brief and focus on only one subject. Try to limit your comments to one small paragraph.
Content Notes can also point readers to information that is available in more detail elsewhere.
1 See Blackmur (1995), especially chapters three and four, for an insightful analysis of this extraordinary animal.
Copyright Permission Notes
If you quote more than 500 words of published material or think you may be in violation of “Fair Use” copyright laws, you must get the formal permission of the author(s). All other sources simply appear in the reference list.
Follow the same formatting rules as with Content Notes for noting copyright permissions. Then attach a copy of the permission letter to the document.
If you are reproducing a graphic, chart, or table, from some other source, you must provide a special note at the bottom of the item that includes copyright information. You should also submit written permission along with your work. Begin the citation with “Note.”
Note. From “Title of the article,” by W. Jones and R. Smith, 2007, Journal Title, 21, p. 122. Copyright 2007 by Copyright Holder. Reprinted with permission.

Reference List: Basic Rules
Your reference list should appear at the end of your paper. It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text.
Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay; label this page References (with no quotation marks, underlining, etc.), centered at the top of the page. It should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay.
Basic Rules
• All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented one-half inch from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation.
• Authors' names are inverted (last name first); give the last name and initials for all authors of a particular work unless the work has more than six authors. If the work has more than six authors, list the first six authors and then use et al. after the sixth author's name to indicate the rest of the authors.
• Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work.
• If you have more than one article by the same author, single-author references or multiple-author references with the exact same authors in the exact same order are listed in order by the year of publication, starting with the earliest.
• When referring to any work that is NOT a journal, such as a book, article, or Web page, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the first letter of the second word in a hyphenated compound word.
• Capitalize all major words in journal titles.
• Italicize titles of longer works such as books and journals.
• Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles or essays in edited collections.

Reference List: Author/Authors
The following rules for handling works by a single author or multiple authors apply to all APA-style references in your reference list, regardless of the type of work (book, article, electronic resource, etc.)
Single Author
Last name first, followed by author initials.
Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7-10.
Two Authors
List by their last names and initials. Use the ampersand instead of "and."
Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048.
Three to Six Authors
List by last names and initials; commas separate author names, while the last author name is preceded again by ampersand.
Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T. (1993). There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204.
More Than Six Authors
If there are more than six authors, list the first six as above and then "et al.," which stands for "and others." Remember not to place a period after "et" in "et al."
Harris, M., Karper, E., Stacks, G., Hoffman, D., DeNiro, R., Cruz, P., et al. (2001). Writing labs and the Hollywood connection. Journal of Film and Writing, 44(3), 213-245.
Organization as Author
American Psychological Association. (2003).
Unknown Author
Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
NOTE: When your essay includes parenthetical citations of sources with no author named, use a shortened version of the source's title instead of an author's name. Use quotation marks and italics as appropriate. For example, parenthetical citations of the two sources above would appear as follows: (Merriam-Webster's, 1993) and ("New Drug," 1993).
Two or More Works by the Same Author
Use the author's name for all entries and list the entries by the year (earliest comes first).
Berndt, T.J. (1981).
Berndt, T.J. (1999).
When an author appears both as a sole author and, in another citation, as the first author of a group, list the one-author entries first.
Berndt, T. J. (1999). Friends' influence on students' adjustment to school. Educational Psychologist, 34, 15-28.
Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends' influence on adolescents' adjustment to school. Child Development, 66, 1312-1329.
References that have the same first author and different second and/or third authors are arranged alphabetically by the last name of the second author, or the last name of the third if the first and second authors are the same.
Wegener, D. T., Kerr, N. L., Fleming, M. A., & Petty, R. E. (2000). Flexible corrections of juror judgments: Implications for jury instructions. Psychology, Public Policy, & Law, 6, 629-654.
Wegener, D. T., Petty, R. E., & Klein, D. J. (1994). Effects of mood on high elaboration attitude change: The mediating role of likelihood judgments. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 25-43.
Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year
If you are using more than one reference by the same author (or the same group of authors listed in the same order) published in the same year, organize them in the reference list alphabetically by the title of the article or chapter. Then assign letter suffixes to the year. Refer to these sources in your essay as they appear in your reference list, e.g.: "Berdnt (1981a) makes similar claims..."
Berndt, T. J. (1981a). Age changes and changes over time in pro-social intentions and behavior between friends. Developmental Psychology, 17, 408-416.
Berndt, T. J. (1981b). Effects of friendship on pro-social intentions and behavior. Child Development, 52, 636-643.
Introductions, Prefaces, Forewords, and Afterwards
Cite the publishing information about a book as usual, but cite Introduction, Preface, Foreword, or Afterward (whatever title is applicable) as the chapter of the book.
Funk, R. & Kolln, M. (1998). Introduction. In E.W. Ludlow (Ed.), Understanding English Grammar (pp. 1-2). Needham, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Reference List: Articles in Periodicals
Basic Form
APA style dictates that authors are named last name followed by initials; publication year goes between parentheses, followed by a period. The title of the article is in sentence-case, meaning only the first word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized or underlined.
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number(issue number), pages.
Article in Journal Paginated by Volume
Journals that are paginated by volume begin with page one in issue one, and continue numbering issue two where issue one ended, etc.
Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896.
Article in Journal Paginated by Issue
Journals paginated by issue begin with page one every issue; therefore, the issue number gets indicated in parentheses after the volume. The parentheses and issue number are not italicized or underlined.
Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. The New Criterion, 15(30), 5-13.
Article in a Magazine
Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.
Article in a Newspaper
Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style. Single pages take p., e.g., p. B2; multiple pages take pp., e.g., pp. B2, B4 or pp. C1, C3-C4.
Schultz, S. (2005, December 28). Calls made to strengthen state energy policies. The Country Today, pp. 1A, 2A.
Letter to the Editor
Moller, G. (2002, August). Ripples versus rumbles [Letter to the editor]. Scientific American, 287(2), 12.
Review
Baumeister, R. F. (1993). Exposing the self-knowledge myth [Review of the book The self-knower: A hero under control]. Contemporary Psychology, 38, 466-467.

Reference List: Books
Basic Format for Books
Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher.
Note: For "Location," you should always list the city, but you should also include the state if the city is unfamiliar or if the city could be confused with one in another state.
Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal publication. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Edited Book, No Author
Duncan, G. J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.). (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Edited Book with an Author or Authors
Plath, S. (2000). The unabridged journals (K.V. Kukil, Ed.). New York: Anchor.
A Translation
Laplace, P. S. (1951). A philosophical essay on probabilities. (F. W. Truscott & F. L. Emory, Trans.). New York: Dover. (Original work published 1814).
Note: When you cite a republished work, like the one above, work in your text, it should appear with both dates: Laplace (1814/1951).
Edition Other Than the First
Helfer, M. E., Keme, R. S., & Drugman, R. D. (1997). The battered child (5th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Reference List: Other Print Sources
An Entry in an Encyclopedia
Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.
Work Discussed in a Secondary Source
List the source the work was discussed in:
Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychological Review, 100, 589-608.
NOTE: Give the secondary source in the references list; in the text, name the original work, and give a citation for the secondary source. For example, if Seidenberg and McClelland's work is cited in Coltheart et al. and you did not read the original work, list the Coltheart et al. reference in the References. In the text, use the following citation:
In Seidenberg and McClelland's study (as cited in Coltheart, Curtis, Atkins, & Haller, 1993), ...
Dissertation Abstract
Yoshida, Y. (2001). Essays in urban transportation (Doctoral dissertation, Boston College, 2001). Dissertation Abstracts International, 62, 7741A.
Government Document
National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical training in serious mental illness (DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Report from a Private Organization
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with eating disorders (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Author.
Conference Proceedings
Schnase, J.L., & Cunnius, E.L. (Eds.). (1995). Proceedings from CSCL '95: The First International Conference on Computer Support for Collaborative Learning. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Article or Chapter in an Edited Book
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher.
Note: When you list the pages of the chapter or essay in parentheses after the book title, use "pp." before the numbers: (pp. 1-21). This abbreviation, however, does not appear before the page numbers in periodical references, except for newspapers.
O 'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and women's gender role journeys: Metaphor for healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the life cycle (pp. 107-123). New York: Springer.
Multivolume Work
Wiener, P. (Ed.). (1973). Dictionary of the history of ideas (Vols. 1-4). New York: Scribner's.

Reference List: Electronic Sources
Article from an Online Periodical
Online articles follow the same guidelines for printed articles. Include all information the online host makes available, including an issue number in parentheses. Provide retrieval date only if the information is likely to be updated or changed at a later date (as in the case of blogs and wikis). Since many online periodicals appear in their "final" form, a retrieval date is not necessary.
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Online Periodical, volume number(issue number if available). Retrieved month day, year, (if necessary) from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites, 149. Retrieved May 2, 2006, from http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving
Online Scholarly Journal Article
Since online materials can potentially change URL's, APA recommends providing a Digital Object Identifier (DOI), when it is available, as opposed to the URL. DOI's are an attempt to provide stable, long-lasting links for online articles. They are unique to their documents and consist of a long alphanumeric code. Many-but not all-publishers will provide an article's DOI on the first page of the document.
Note that some online bibliographies provide an article's DOI but may "hide" the code under a button which may read "Article" or may be an abbreviation of a vendors name like "CrossRef" or "PubMed." This button will usually lead the user to the full article which will include the DOI. Find DOI's from print publications or ones that go to dead links with CrossRef.org's "DOI Resolver," which is displayed in a central location on their home page.
Article from an Online Periodical with DOI Assigned
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number. doi:0000000/000000000000
Brownlie, D. Toward effective poster presentations: An annotated bibliography. European Journal of Marketing, 41(11/12), 1245-1283. doi:10.1108/03090560710821161

Reference List: Other Non-Print Sources
Interviews, Email, and Other Personal Communication
No personal communication is included in your reference list; instead, parenthetically cite the communicator’s name, the fact that it was personal communication and the date of the communication in your main text only.
(E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001).
A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2002).
Motion Picture
Basic reference list format:
PProducer, P. P. (Producer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of motion picture [Motion picture]. Country of origin: Studio or distributor.
Note: If a movie or video tape is not available in wide distribution, add the following to your citation after the country of origin: (Available from Distributor name, full address and zip code).
A Motion Picture or Video Tape with International or National Availability
Smith, J.D. (Producer), & Smithee, A.F. (Director). (2001). Really big disaster movie [ Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.
A Motion Picture or Video Tape with Limited Availability
Harris, M. (Producer), & Turley, M. J. (Director). (2002). Writing labs: A history [Motion picture]. (Available from Purdue University Pictures, 500 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907)
Television Broadcast or Series Episode
Producer, P. P. (Producer). (Date of broadcast or copyright). Title of broadcast [Television broadcast or Television series]. City of origin: Studio or distributor.
Single Episode of a Television Series
Writer, W. W. (Writer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of episode [Television series episode]. In P. Producer (Producer), Series title. City of origin: Studio or distributor.
Wendy, S. W. (Writer), & Martian, I.R. (Director). (1986). The rising angel and the falling ape [Television series episode]. In D. Dude (Producer), Creatures and monsters. Los Angeles: Belarus Studios.
Television Broadcast
Important, I. M. (Producer). (1990, November 1). The nightly news hour [Television broadcast]. New York: Central Broadcasting Service.
A Television Series
Bellisario, D.L. (Producer). (1992). Exciting action show [Television series]. Hollywood: American Broadcasting Company.
Music Recording
Songwriter, W. W. (Date of copyright). Title of song [Recorded by artist if different from song writer]. On Title of album [Medium of recording]. Location: Label. (Recording date if different from copyright date).
Taupin, B. (1975). Someone saved my life tonight [Recorded by Elton John]. On Captain fantastic and the brown dirt cowboy [CD]. London: Big Pig Music Limited.
For more about citing audiovisual media, see pages 266-269 of the Publication Manual.
For information about citing legal sources in your reference list, see the Westfield State College page on Citing Legal Materials in APA Style.

Article from an Online Periodical with no DOI Assigned
Online scholarly journal articles without a DOI require a URL but do not require a retrieval date. Provide retrieval date only if the information is likely to be updated or changed at a later date (as in the case of blogs and wikis). Since most journal articles appear in their "final" form, a retrieval date is not needed.
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number. Retrieved month day, year, from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8.Retrieved February 20, 2001, from http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html
If the article appears as a printed version as well, the URL is not required. Use "Electronic version" in brackets after the article's title.
Whitmeyer, J.M. (2000). Power through appointment [Electronic version]. Social Science Research, 29, 535-555.
Article from a Database
When referencing material obtained from an online database (such as a database in the library), provide appropriate print citation information (formatted just like a "normal" print citation would be for that type of work). Then add information that gives the date of retrieval and the proper name of the database. This will allow people to retrieve the print version if they do not have access to the database from which you retrieved the article. You can also include the item number or accession number in parentheses at the end, but the APA manual says that this is not required. (For more about citing articles retrieved from electronic databases, see page 278 of the Publication Manual.)
Smyth, A. M., Parker, A. L., & Pease, D. L. (2002). A study of enjoyment of peas. Journal of Abnormal Eating, 8(3). Retrieved February 20, 2003, from PsycARTICLES database.
Abstract
If you only cite an abstract but the full text of the article is also available, cite the online abstract as other online citations, adding "[Abstract]" after the article or source name. If only the abstract is available, write "Abstract retrieved from" and provide the database name or URL.
Paterson, P. (2008). How well do young offenders with Asperger Syndrome cope in custody? Two prison case studies [Abstract]. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(1), 54-58. Retrieved from EBSCO Host database.
Bossong, G. Ergativity in Basque. Linguistics, 22(3), 341-392. Abstract retrieved from Linguistics Abstracts Online.
Newspaper Article
Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Newspaper. Retrieved http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Parker-Pope, T. (2008, May 6). Psychiatry handbook linked to drug industry. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com
Electronic Books
Electronic books may include books found on personal websites, databases, or even in audio form. Use the following format if the book you are using is only provided in a digital format or is difficult to find in print. If the work is not directly available online or must be purchased, use "Available from," rather than "Retrieved from," and point readers to where they can find it.
De Huff, E.W. Taytay’s tales: Traditional Pueblo Indian tales. Retrieved from http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/dehuff/taytay/
taytay.html
Davis, J. Familiar birdsongs of the Northwest. Available from http://www.powells.com/cgi-bin/biblio?inkey=1-
9780931686108-0
Chapter/Section of a Web document or Online Book Chapter
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. In Title of book or larger document (chapter or section number). Retrieved month day, year, from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/.
Engelshcall, R. S. (1997). Module mod_rewrite: URL Rewriting Engine. In Apache HTTP Server Version 1.3 Documentation (Apache modules.) Retrieved March 10, 2006, from http://httpd.apache.org/docs/1.3/mod/mod_rewrite.html
Peckinpaugh, J. (2003). Change in the Nineties. In J.S. Bough and G.B. DuBois (Eds.), A century of growth in America. Retrieved from GoldStar database.
NOTE: Use a chapter or section identifier and provide a URL that links directly to the chapter section, not the home page of the Web site.
Online Book Reviews
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Explain the evolvement of the theories of Gender and Development from the 1970s to 2000

UGANDA CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY –
MUKONO
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE : MA DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

COURSE UNIT : GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

LECTURER : DR KUKUNDA ELIZABETH BACWAYO.
NAMES : NATAMBA SHADRACK

REG.NO : RS09M13/503

DATE DUE : 01/11/09

Question: Explain the evolvement of the theories of Gender and Development from the 1970s to 2000.


The term 'gender' refers to the social construction of female and male identity. It can be defined as 'more than biological differences between men and women. It includes the ways in which those differences, whether real or perceived, have been valued, used and relied upon to classify women and men and to assign roles and expectations to them. The significance of this is that the lives and experiences of women and men, including their experience of the legal system, occur within complex sets of differing social and cultural expectations (Ministry of Women's Affairs, New Zealand) whereas “Development” according to Korten. D, (1990:67) is a process by which the members of a society increase their personal and institutional capacities to mobilize and manage resources to produce sustainable and justly distributed improvements in their quality of life consistent with their own aspirations. The above definition emphasizes the process of development and its essential focus on personal and institutional capacity.
Introduction:
During the past few years, the term "women in development" has become common currency both inside and outside academic settings. But while "women in development (WID), is understood to mean the integration of women into global processes of economic, political and social growth and change, the student begins by examining the origins, meanings and assumptions embedded in "WID" and "GAD", how WID entered the conversation of development and then the extent to which differing views of the relationship between gender and development have influenced research, policymaking and international agency thinking since 1970s up to date. It is suggested that each term has been associated with a varying set of assumptions and has led to the formulation of different strategies for the participation of women in development strategies.

Firstly the term “women in development” was coined in the early 1970s by a Washington-based network of female development professionals (Tinker, 1990:30). On the basis of their own experiences in overseas missions, they began to challenge trickle down theories of development, arguing that modernization was impacting differently on men and women. Instead of improving women’s rights and status, the development process appeared to be contributing to a wear and tear of their position. In particular, the work of the Danish economist, Esther Boserup was most significant in influencing WID. From the perspective of the WID movement, the importance of Boserup’s ‘Women’s Role in Economic Development’ (1970) was that it challenged the assumptions of the welfare approach and highlighted women’s importance to the agricultural economy. Boserup posited a positive correlation/relationship between the role women played in agricultural production and their status vis-à-vis men.

Tinker and Bramson (1976), argued that through massive expansion of education systems, stocks of well-trained workers and managers would emerge; this in turn would enable the evolution of static, essentially agrarian societies into industrialized and modernized ones. With the growth of the economies of these countries, the benefits of modernization, that is better living conditions, wages; education, adequate health services, etc. would "trickle down" to all segments of the society.

By the 1970s, this view of modernization was being questioned by many researchers. It was argued that the relative position of women had, in fact, improved very little over the past two decades. There was even evidence which suggested that the position of some women had declined (Boserup, 1970; Tinker and Bramson, 1976; Boulding, 1976; Kelly and Elliot, 1982). For example, in general, women were less likely to benefit from the course of educational expansion (Muchena 1982). Enrolment figures, especially at the tertiary level, tended to be lower for females.

Moser (1989) identifies five broad ideological approaches under the rubric of Women in Development (WID), each with its own implications for development policy and practice. Although Moser attempts to trace these approaches chronologically, she acknowledges that it would be misleading to view them as independent and exclusive of each other. In practice, many policies have appeared more or less simultaneously, appealing to different institutions for example, government, donor agencies, activists, non-governmental organisations and women’s groups. It will be useful to look at the range of approaches focusing on WID and make distinctions between the main categories and how each views women.

These ideological approaches include; the welfare, anti-poverty, equity, efficiency and empowerment. They are the Third World policy approaches to Women in Development (WID) whose goal is a more efficient and effective development through the integration of women in the development processes. They were formulated as a result of concern for the low income women needs on one hand and the recognition of their important role in the development process on the other. They are a reflection of changes in macro-level economic and social policy approaches to Third World development as well as in state policy towards women. The student examines these policy approaches in terms of their roles recognized, gender needs met (practical or strategic) and the extent to which participatory planning procedures are included on top of the origin and purpose of each approach as a basis on which we can draw the comparisons that exist between the five approaches and these are:

Welfare approach; is the earliest approach (pre-WID) that emerged in 1950s -70s and it is still most popular. It emerged out of the residual model of social welfare under the colonial system and the Women were seen as passive recipients of development and the major purpose was to bring women into development as better mothers. The key concerns of the welfare approach therefore include; Family physical survival and this was done through handouts like food aid given especially to low-income women in their mothering roles who are seen as the primary targets for improving family welfare particularly of children; Nutrition education; targeting children under five years as well as pregnant and nursing mothers. It was assumed that extra provision of food aid would make them better mothers, population control through family planning; which was assumed that limiting fertility through widespread dissemination of contraceptive knowledge and technology to women would reduce poverty. Finally, the approach assumes that motherhood is the most important role for women in Third World Countries thus its concern is to meet practical gender needs associated with women’s reproductive role and Identifies women rather than lack of resources as the problem and places the solution to family welfare in their hands and finally, it is based on a top down development approach which creates dependency rather than assisting them to become independent.
The World Bank has had an Advisor on Women in Development since the early 1970s, but in the mid-80s this office was expanded and given a higher profile within the Bank. A major focus of the expanded office during the 1980s has been on "Safe motherhood" under the argument that: "Improving maternal health helps involve women more effectively in development" (Herz and Measham 1987).

Unfortunately, the approach is not concerned about strategic gender needs (the needs women identify as a result of their subordinate position to men in the society and are related to gender divisions of labor, power and control such as legal rights, domestic violence, equal wages and control over their reproduction such as those which give women the mandate to have control over their reproduction).
The Equity Approach; the equity approach dates from the mid-1970s. It draws on research highlighting women’s significant economic contributions. The purpose of this approach was to gain equality for women in all spheres of life. The equity approach began on the promise that development had failed by ignoring productive (paid) roles of women. Often, the equity approach is referred to as the original WID approach (Buvinic, 1983; 1986). This approach recognizes that women are active participants in the development process. They can play both productive and reproductive roles and can contribute to economic growth. The approach starts with the basic assumption that economic strategies have frequently had a negative impact on women. It acknowledges that women need to be brought into the development process through access to employment and the market.
The Anti-poverty Approach; (often referred to as the second WID approach) stresses that the inequalities between men and women were linked to poverty and not simply the subordination of one sex by a more powerful other. It recognizes women as the ‘poorest of the poor’ and focuses on their productive roles, usually through small-scale income generation projects. Through the productive role of women, the approach focuses on poverty alleviation and the promotion of balanced economic growth of women in low-income households. Underlying this approach is the assumption that the origins of women’s poverty and inequality with men can be attributed to their lack of access to private ownership of land and capital, and sexual discrimination in the labour market. Consequently, this approach aims at employment and income generating options for women with low income through better access to productive resources.

Experience with the anti-poverty approach has shown that income generating programmes have tended to be small scale and have not questioned who controls income within the family. Further, since it was based on the assumption that women have free time they have often ignored women’s productive roles and this has been the cause of additional work. Anti-poverty income generating projects may provide employment for women and thereby meet practical gender needs. But unless employment leads to greater autonomy/independence, it does not meet strategic gender needs. This is the indispensable/essential difference between the equity and anti-poverty approaches.

The Efficiency Approach; its emphasis has shifted from women towards development on the assumptions that increased participation of women is automatically linked with increased equity. The deteriorating economic conditions prevalent in the 1980s and emergence of its structural adjustment programme resulted in the initiation of this approach, which focuses on productive roles of women as an underutilized resource for development. Efficiency approach relies heavily on the elasticity of women’s labour in both the reproductive and community managing roles and only meets practical gender needs at the cost of longer working hours and increased unpaid work. While this approach is pragmatic, it can be seen as an entry point for women to redefine the development agenda.

The Empowerment Approach; It emerged in 1970s but gained in 1980s and its origin lies on the grass-roots of organisational experience and feminist writings of women from the developing world. The major proponents of this approach are the Third World women. It is the most recent and still less recognized. It describes empowerment as increasing the capacity of women to develop their self-reliance in order to identify problems, development and change. Since then the word empowerment has become popular in development and social change and refers to the form of processes which leads to participation. It links women subordination not only to male dominance but also to colonial and neo-colonial oppression. It recognizes women’s triple roles and seeks to meet strategic gender roles in a bottom-up manner of mobilization around practical gender needs. It is still unpopular except with Third World women NG0s and their supporters. It is said to have emerged because of the dissatisfaction with the equity approaches perceived co-option with anti-poverty and efficiency approaches. This approach acknowledges inequalities between men and women and the family as the source of women’s subordination. It also attributes women oppression to factors like race, class, colonial history and current position in the international economic order and stresses that women should work to challenge these oppressive factors. Compared to equity approach, It acknowledges the need for power for women only mainly for purposes of enhancing their capacity to increase their own self reliance and internal strength and not for dominance; to give them the right or ability to determine choices in life and to influence the direction of change through the ability to gain control over crucial and non material resources.
According to Buvinic (1983), the shift in policies from welfare, to equity, to anti-poverty and finally to efficiency and empowerment reflect the general Third World development policy trends from policies such as modernization characterized by accelerated growth to basic needs characterized by growth with redistribution and to policy measures associated with structural adjustment policies.

Because the socialist feminists identified social construction of production and reproduction as the basis of women's oppression, there came a need to focus their attention to the social relations of gender, and the question on the validity of roles which were endorsed to both women and men in different societies led to Gender and Development approach. This approach emerged in the 1980s as an alternative to the earlier WID focus. It finds its theoretical roots in socialist feminism and has bridged the gap left by the modernization theorists, linking the relations of production to the relations of reproduction and taking into account all aspects of women's lives (Jaquette 1982).

Kate Young (1987) has identified some of the key aspects of the GAD approach. Perhaps most significantly, the GAD approach starts from a holistic perspective, looking at "the totality of social organization, economic and political life in order to understand the shaping of particular aspects of society" (Young 1987: 2). GAD is not concerned with women per se but with the social construction of gender and the assignment of specific roles, responsibilities and expectations to women and to men. In contrast to the emphasis on exclusively female solidarity which is highly prized by radical feminists, the GAD approach welcomes the potential contributions of men who share a concern for issues of equity and social justice (Ben and crown 1987).

It analyses the nature of women's contribution within the context of work done both inside and outside the household, including non-commodity production, and rejects the public/private dichotomy which commonly has been used as a mechanism to undervalue family and household maintenance work performed by women. Both the socialist/feminist and GAD approaches give special attention to the oppression of women in the family and enter the so-called "private sphere" to analyze the assumptions upon which conjugal relationships are based. GAD also puts greater emphasis on the participation of the state in promoting women's emancipation, seeing it as the duty of the state to provide some of the social services which women in many countries have provided on a private and individual.

The approach sees women as, agents of change rather than passive recipients of development and it stresses the need for women to organize themselves for more effective political voice. It also recognizes the importance of both class solidarities and class distinctions but it argues that the beliefs of patriarchy operate within and across classes to oppress women.

Some governments like Uganda and NGOs are fronting GAD perspective in order to strengthen women's legal rights, including the reform of inheritance and land laws. Research also is examining the confusions created by the co-existence of customary and statutory legal systems in many countries and the tendency for these to have been manipulated by men to the disadvantage of women for instance in Uganda the Domestic relations Bill was tabled and passed as a law to protect women’s rights in marriage.

Gender mainstreaming; is a way or process of ensuring that men’s and women’s constraints, needs, potentials and capabilities are incorporated in the development policies, processes and strategies at all stages including planning, implementation and evaluation ( Kyasiimire C 2003:3).
The approach considers why gender analysis is integral to the policy and program process and incorporates women’s views and priorities into the core of policy decisions, institutional structures, and resource allocations. It is the conceptualizing stage of a gender management system. It recognizes the need not just to ‘add-in’ gender, but to challenge the status quo so that these issues are not marginalized and/or ignored (Schalkwyk et al., 1996). A mainstreaming approach assumes that virtually all policies and programs have the potential for differential impacts on men and women, not just ‘women’s issues’. Moreover, a mainstreaming approach assumes that gender analysis is central/fundamental to the policy and program processes and results in changes that ‘add value’ to these processes. A mainstreaming approach should not marginalize differential gender impacts.

It is important that the core policy decisions, institutional structures, and resource allocations should incorporate women’s views and priorities. For instance; the government of Uganda has set up an environment that promotes gender mainstreaming for example; The Constitution of Uganda contains the gender related provisions like Chapter 4 talks about Protection and Promotion of Fundamental and other Human Rights and Freedoms article 21. (1) All persons are equal before and under the law in all spheres of Political, economic, social and cultural life and in every other respect and shall enjoy equal respect of the law, (2) Without prejudice to clause (1) of this article, a person shall not be discriminated against on the ground of sex, race, colour, ethnic origin, tribe, birth, creed or religion, or social or economic standing, political opinion or disability.

Secondly, Affirmative action in Favour of Marginalized groups Article 32. (1) Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, the state shall take affirmative action in favour of groups marginalized on the basis of gender, age, disability or any other reason created by history, tradition or custom, for the purpose of redressing the imbalances which exist against them. (2) Parliament shall make relevant laws, including laws for the establishment of an equal opportunities commission, for the purpose of giving full effect to clause (1) of this article. And in Article 33. (1) Women shall be accorded full and equal dignity of the person with men. (2) The state shall provide the facilities and opportunities necessary to enhance the welfare of women to enable them to realise their full potential and advancement. (3) The state shall protect women and their rights, taking into account their unique status and natural maternal functions in society. (4) Women shall have the right to equal treatment with men and that right shall include equal opportunities in political, economic and social activities (5) Without prejudice to article 32 of this Constitution, women shall have the right to affirmative action for the purpose of redressing the imbalances created by history, tradition or custom. (6) Laws, cultures, customs or traditions which are against the dignity, welfare or interest of women or which undermine their status are prohibited by the Constitution.

Uganda’s Ministry of Gender and Community Development National Gender Policy; Uganda’s National Gender Policy aims at guiding, and directing planning, resource allocation and implementation of development programmes in such a way that emphasizes a gender perspective. It also states that sustainable development necessitates maximum and equal participation of both men and women in economic, political, civil and cultural development.

In conclusion, it should be noted that none of these approaches can work independently and meet all women’s needs and concerns. In most cases, it takes a combination of the efforts of all the above because much as we may assume that women’s needs are the same throughout all societies, we must recognize that there are differences based on context, interests, culture among others. Gender as a concept is difficult to operationalise unless it is grounded in values. Established male dominance and cultural traditional beliefs and attitudes compound the problem. The positive constitutional and legal provisions not withstanding, gender in Uganda is still largely perceived by many sections of society as an elite affair. Some perceive it as one of those social concepts driven by foreign ideas of feminism that have not been contextualized locally.



Reference:
Beneria, Lourdos and Gita son. 1981. "Accumulation, Reproduction, and women's Role in Economic Development." In Signs 7, no. 3.

Boserup E. Women’s Role in Economic Development, St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1970.

Buvinic, Mayra. 1986. "Projects for women in the Third World: Explaining their Misbehavior." World Development 14, no. 5.

Constitution of the Republic of Uganda 1995, p. 20.

Jaquette, Jane S. 1982. "Women and Modernization Theory: A Decade of Feminist Criticism." In World Politics 34, no-2.

Kyasiimire C 2003. Best Practices in Community Participation and Gender Mainstreaming: Literature Review and Documentation.

Moser, C.O.N. Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice and Training, Routledge, London, 1993

Razavi Shahrashoub and Carol Miller; From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse. UNRISD. Geneva, 1995, p. 12.

The Republic of Uganda, The National Gender Policy, Ministry of Gender and Community Development, Kampala, 1997 p.1.

Tinker, Irene and M.B. Bramson (1976); Women and Development. Washington, D.C.: overseas Development Council.

Young, Kate. 1987. "Gender and Development." Notes for a Training Course on Gender and Development sponsored by the Aga Khan Foundation, Toronto

The irrelevence of Development studies by Yosa

This was discussed by Ms Immaculate Yosa and Posted by shadrack Natamba
The irrelevance of development studies.
Approach:
 Define/explain your understanding of the term development and of one or two scholars/writers.
 Define/explain your understanding of the term development studies and of one or two scholars/writers.
 Briefly in a line or two make mention of how the whole issue of ‘development studies’ came to play.
 Begin discussion by citing areas of irrelevance.
 Cite a few areas of relevance.
 Conclude.

Development:

It is a slow and uneven process.
People’s control over the forces which shape their lives (Michael Edwards, 1989, the irrelevance of development studies, third world quarterly)
There can be no fixed and final definition of development, only suggestions of what development should imply in particular contexts. Thus to a large extent development is contextually defined and should be an open ended concept to be constantly redefined as our understanding of the process deepens and as new problems to be solved by ‘development’ emerge. (Hettne, 1994; the research territory, Development theory and the three worlds)
Development studies.
All forms of writing and talking about development as well as forms of action such as training and even project work which grow out of these processes. (Michael Edwards, 1989, the irrelevance of development studies, third world quarterly)
It is problem oriented, concerned with the global disparities in material resources, the social consequences of this situation in different societies and political strategies to change it.
It is interdisciplinary thus dependent on monodisciplinary work in other disciplines such as economics,sociology,political science,anthropology,history and a few science disciplines as well. (Hettne, 1994; the research territory, Development theory and the three worlds)
Most development theorists emerged after WWII.Its after that time that the world came to the realization of the dire need that most countries where in especially in the third world thereby emerging a group of people who prescribed solutions for these countries which once embarked on would improve their situation and thus ‘develop’.


Areas that suggest irrelevance of the study of Development studies.
- Conventional approaches to development and their failure to solve the problems they seek to address. Development studies are still largely based largely on traditional ‘banking’ concepts that embody a series of attitudes that contribute to the irrelevance of much of their output to the problems of the world in which we live. People are treated as objects to be studied rather than subjects of their own development. Research and education has come to be dominated by content rather than form or method thereby becoming processes which focus on the transmission of information usually from one person to another. The most extreme example of this process is the empirical questionnaire based survey designed, analysed and controlled by people outside the community which is being studied.
- Experts and their devaluation of popular knowledge and their love for projects. The idea that development consists of a transfer of skills or information creates a role for the expert as the only person capable of mediating the transfer of these skills from one person or society to another. This serves as justification for the number of experts who flock the south in the name of transferring information and skills to develop the third world. The educated elites too just mimic from the so called expatriates from the north without learning a thing or two about trial and error such that even their exit, they could sustain programs in their own countries. In all sectors of development, the adoption of problem solving approaches is much more important than communicating particular packages of technical information. a system of education and training that relies on experts will never be able to change much of the status quo because the attitudes of the expert prevent people from thinking for themselves. Development is about the process of enrichment empowerment and participation which the technocratic, project oriented view of the world simply cannot accommodate.
- Additionally, the consequence of the predominant technical view of development is the devaluation of indigenous knowledge which grows out of the direct experience of poor people in the search for solutions to the problems that face us. This is inevitable if knowledge is associated with formal education and training. Indigenous knowledge is relegated to subordinate positions. The result is that general solutions manufactured from the outside are offered to specific problems which are highly localized.
- Refusal to accept the role of emotion in understanding the problems of developement.it is impossible to understand the real life problems fully unless we can grasp the multitude of constraints, imperfections and emotions that shape the actions and decisions of real of real living people. People often act on issues about which they have strong feelings. So all education and development projects should start by identifying the issues which local people speak about with excitement,hope,fear,anxiety or anger if ‘development’ is to be relevant to the people it is intended for.

- Conventional approaches to development studies embody certain values and mindsets which act as a barrier to the genuine understanding of issues and problems.i.e modernity, quantification, prediction, tidiness etc vis-à-vis traditional, nonquantifiable, unpredictable and messy. The mismatch between these two sets of preferences results in a series of biases in the perceiver that obscure a real understanding of the situation at a hand. This is coupled with humility on the part of the researcher which many lack. It is the absence of humility that places many academics in attitudes of self appointed superiority over people who are more directly involved in practical development work. The first essential step toward greater relevance in development studies is to change the way we think and act so that we become able to listen and to learn from below.

- Monopoly of knowledge and the control of power:-The field of development studies is dominated by the north and to a lesser extent by the third world elites whom we have trained and sponsored. The journals and books they publish are not only expensive but the materials they have are inapplicable to the problems of the third world and irrelevant because of the bias and misconceptions that form the subject matter. This is no different from the third world elites who in a bid to change and challenge the north haven’t done much to solve the barriers the north and their education and training create. For instance they over emphasize the acquisition of technical skills and yet fail to challenge the prejudices which prevent people from learning from below.(cite relevant examples)

- The growth of participatory research networks throughout the third world may be encouraging but on ground it shows a lot still has to be done. Popular participation is accepted as the only real basis for successful development. In reality however, the practice of development studies continues to be anti-participatory. The contradiction shows itself in the advocacy of participation by writers who do not allow the subjects of their research to participate and by development agencies who parrot the virtues of participation while telling their partners in the third world what to do and how to do it. .(cite relevant examples)

- Majority of the areas which suggest the reason to mark development studies as being irrelevant is simple inequality of power between north and south. The north and them being monopolies over reaserch, academics and control over the funding of development work coz they have all the resources for all. However, power is a central component of development and without it there is little that the poor can do to change their circumstances.centrailsed control over development studies is therefore directly anti developmental in its effects.i.e it undermines local self confidence and prevents the transformation of people into agents of their own development by retarding the sharing of knowledge and information.

- The famous inscription on Karl Marx’s gravestone in highgate cemetery London poses a dichotomy which is central to the irrelevance of much development thinking today. Marx emphasized that changing the world rather than understanding or interpreting it is the prime task of the revolutionary. Conventional approaches to development studies posit the opposite view.undetsdatning must precede the ability to effect change. Problem with much in development studies today is that they are divorced completely from the practical processes of change. We cannot change the world successfully unless we understand the way it works; but neither can we understand the world fully unless we are involved in some way with the processes that change it.Developement cannot be ‘studied’ at all; we can participate in the processes that underlie development and observe, record, analyse what we see but we can never be relevant to the problems in the abstract. Our tendency to separate the processes of understanding and change naturally leads to irrelevance b’se while abstract research cannot be applied in practice; practice is often deficient because it fails to understand the real causes and character of the problems it seeks to address.
- Researchers getting tired and getting new solutions
- Policies which have failed.
- Uncovered solutions to problems

qualitative Vs quantitative by Shadrack

Question: Illustrating with examples, distinguish between qualitative and quantitative approaches to research. Explain the value of the mixed methods approach.
Approach:
Define the key terms-research, qualitative, and quantitative approach.
Differences between qualitative and quantitative
The value of the mixed methods approach.
Research; is taking another step forward is searching for the unknown. Someone else has searched and explained some phenomenon, and you are adding on what is already known.

A qualitative "approach" is a general way of thinking about conducting qualitative research. It describes, either explicitly or implicitly, the purpose of the qualitative research, the role of the researcher(s), the stages of research, and the method of data analysis.
A qualitative approach: This approach promotes greater understanding of not just the way things are, but also why they are the way they are. Through intensive and extensive observation, interviews and discussions, the qualitative researcher seeks to derive and describe findings that promote greater understanding of how and why people behave the way they do. It explains and gains insight and understanding of phenomena through intensive collection of narrative data (Martin E. Amin, 2005).
In this approach, data collected is subjective and the main measurement tool for collecting data is the investigator him/herself (Martin E. Amin, 2005), therefore a need for an intensive training and practice in the methods to be used if one is to conduct an effective research. Its data is basically descriptive in nature.
A quantitative approach: On the other hand however, this appraoch deals with numbers. Quantitative research involves the collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict and control phenomena of interest, data analysis being more statistical (Martin E. Amin, 2005). It involves collecting data in order to test hypotheses or answer questions concerning the current status of the subject of the study.
Quantitative research is the sort of scientific research with which you are probably most familiar. There are a strict set of rules that govern the use of such research. Knowledgeable methodologists can evaluate the quality of such research and point out weaknesses in it.
Quantitative research is probably the least contentious of the two schools, as it is more closely aligned with what is viewed as the classical scientific paradigm. Quantitative research involves gathering data that is absolute, such as numerical data, so that it can be examined in as unbiased a manner as possible. There are many principles that go along with quantitative research, which help promote its supposed neutrality. Quantitative research generally comes later in a research project, once the scope of the project is well understood.
The main idea behind quantitative research is to be able to separate things easily so that they can be counted and modeled statistically, to remove factors that may distract from the intent of the research. A researcher generally has a very clear idea what is being measured before they start measuring it, and their study is set up with controls and a very clear blueprint. Tools used are intended to minimize any bias, so ideally are machines that collect information, and less ideally would be carefully randomized surveys. The result of quantitative research is a collection of numbers, which can be subjected to statistical analysis to come to results.
Remaining separate from the research emotionally is a key aspect of quantitative research, as is removing researcher bias. For things like astronomy or other hard sciences, this means that quantitative research has a very minimal amount of bias at all. For things like sociological data, this means that the majority of bias is hopefully limited to that introduced by the people being studied, which can be somewhat accounted for in models. Quantitative is ideal for testing hypotheses, and for hard sciences trying to answer specific questions.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is a much more subjective form of research, in which the researchers allow themselves to introduce their own bias to help form a more complete picture. Qualitative research may be necessary in situations where it is unclear what exactly is being looked for in a study, so that the researcher needs to be able to determine what data is important and what isn’t. While quantitative research generally knows exactly what it’s looking for before the research begins, in qualitative research the focus of the study may become more apparent as time progresses.

Often the data presented from qualitative research will be much less concrete than pure numbers as data. Instead, qualitative research may yield stories, or pictures, or descriptions of feelings and emotions. The interpretations given by research subjects are given weight in qualitative research, so there is no seeking to limit their bias. At the same time, researchers tend to become more emotionally attached to qualitative research, and so their own bias may also play heavily into the results.
Qualitative research methods are most often utilized in fields such as anthropology, the humanities and sociology, although each of these fields can be studied through quantitative methods as well. Since qualitative research is exploratory and focuses on discerning the why of things, such as human behavior, rather than the what of the natural world, it is often criticized for being too subjective. Many make the counter-argument, however, that since qualitative methods are hypothesis generating, they are not only just as valuable as quantitative methods but necessary for the production of theoretical models which come to inform the direction of quantitative research methods.
Data collection and analysis is another way that quantitative and qualitative research differ. In qualitative research, data samples are usually not collected through random selection but rather purposive reasoning, which is to say they are chosen for how well they typify/demonstrate the characteristics of a certain class. For example, a qualitative research study on racial inequality will not likely concern itself with affluent/rich minorities or the entire population of a minority, but rather, it might focus on depressed areas where minorities are most prevalent. This approach is chosen because qualitative researchers are not concerned with discerning the quantity of people in a minority class, but rather the quality of life for minorities who are affected by inequality.
The researcher's role in interpreting the meaning of data is more centralized in the qualitative approach than it is in quantitative methods, which ideally seek to make purely empirical observations devoid of perspective. In sharp contrast, qualitative researchers must reflect upon their research and make the reasoning behind the interpretations of their data explicit in their analysis.
Qualitative research is thought especially valuable in circumstances where quantitative data does not account for a particular phenomenon. For example, while economics frequently concerns itself with collecting concrete information, like statistics and financial data, it can be said to be flawed because it ignores the humanistic and psychological aspects of the people that are a key component. This human component requires a qualitative understanding, which leads to the development of such concepts as "consumer confidence."
An important variable to consider when analyzing the dependability of qualitative research is validity. It is important to consider how a conclusion was reached, and whether it really represents a dependable and realistic interpretation of its subject. It may or may not be pertinent to ask whether or not a conclusion is reproducible, or whether it was affected by bias. One should also consider whether data from qualitative research is well reasoned and the extent to which it accounts for a substantial majority of the available data.
The Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Qualitative Quantitative
The aim is a complete, detailed description. The aim is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.
Researcher may only know roughly in advance what he/she is looking for. Researcher knows clearly in advance what he/she is looking for.
Recommended during earlier phases of research projects. Recommended during latter phases of research projects.
The design emerges as the study unfolds. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
Researcher is the data gathering instrument. Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or equipment to collect numerical data.
Data is in the form of words, pictures or objects. Data is in the form of numbers and statistics.
Subjective - individuals’ interpretation of events is important ,e.g., uses participant observation, in-depth interviews etc. Objective – seeks precise measurement & analysis of target concepts, e.g., uses surveys, questionnaires etc.
Qualitative data is more 'rich', time consuming, and less able to be generalized. Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail.
Researcher tends to become subjectively immersed in the subject matter. Researcher tends to remain objectively separated from the subject matter.

Main Points to note
Qualitative research involves analysis of data such as words (e.g., from interviews), pictures (e.g., video), or objects (e.g., an artifact).
Quantitative research involves analysis of numerical data.
The strengths and weaknesses of qualitative and quantitative research are a perennial/permanent, hot debate, especially in the social sciences. The issues invoke classic 'paradigm war'.
The personality / thinking style of the researcher and/or the culture of the organization is under-recognized as a key factor in preferred choice of methods.
Overly focusing on the debate of "qualitative versus quantitative" frames the methods in opposition. It is important to focus also on how the techniques can be integrated, such as in mixed methods research. More good can come of social science researchers developing skills in both realms than debating which method is superior.
Unlike the non-survey types of research, these are based on numbers, and the conclusions are based on the frequencies of each category.

Thus qualitative ‘measures’ are often binary in that they are interested in the presence or absence of phenomena, or they work implicitly with simple scales (e.g. How much conversation or laughter or aggression or mutual touching in
a particular interaction?). Primarily qualitative research seeks to understand and interpret the meaning of situations or events from the perspectives of the people involved and as understood by them. It is generally inductive rather than deductive in its approach, that is, it generates theory from interpretation of the evidence, albeit against a theoretical background While Quantitative research places the emphasis on measurement when collecting and analysing data. Quantitative research is defined, not just by its use of numerical measures but also that it generally follows a natural science model of the research process measurement to establish objective knowledge (that is, knowledge that exists independently of the views and values of the people involved).

Methods of qualitative research include: Data management, Aims/analysis objectives, Sampling design Data collection Data analysis while Methods of data collection in quantitative research include: surveys (questionnaires), structured interviewing, structured observation, secondary analysis and official statistics, content analysis according to a coding system, quasi-experiments (studies that have some of the characteristics of experimental design) classic experiments (studies that have control groups and experimental groups).

The Assumptions of Qualitative Designs
Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products.
Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning ¬how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world.
The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires, or machines.
Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site, or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting.
Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures.
The process of qualitative research is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details.

Mixed methods approach and its value;
Mixed methods researchers, brings together the benefits of both qualitative and quantitative approaches to research, often claim greater validity of results as a reason for their methodological choices, but without adequate consideration of the issues involved such validity may be more imagined than real.

Mixed methods are used to enrich understanding of an experience or issue through confirmation of conclusions, extension of knowledge or by initiating new ways of thinking about the subject of the research. Mixed methods are inherently neither more nor less valid than specific approaches to research. As with any research, validity stems more from the appropriateness, thoroughness and effectiveness with which those methods are applied and the care given to thoughtful weighing of the evidence than from the application of a particular set of rules or adherence to an established tradition.

Mixed methods designs are conceptually more complex. They may provide a basis for triangulation but, more often, they become the source of different ways of conceptualising the problem. They might set out to look at the same things from different points of view, but it often turns out that the viewpoint implies such different ways of seeing that the lines of sight do not converge. Mixed method studies might include a survey followed up by detailed individual interviews, or observations used as the basis for constructing a questionnaire. Overall inquiry purpose – whether the aim is to confirm or refute hypotheses or whether it is more exploratory

NB: mixed methods, there are at least twice as many opportunities to make mistakes and twice as many potential sources of criticism! As well as competence in skills and techniques, researchers need to understand the theories of knowledge (the epistemologies) underlying the methods, so that they can make informed choices and reflect critically on their own work














Recommended Links
Qualitative versus Quantitative - http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/Qualitative/qualquan.htm - a table (similar to above), summarizing characteristics of qualitative and quantitative research in more detail
Qualitative versus Quantitative Design - http://www.kelcom.igs.net/~nhodgins/quant_qual.html - another table (like above)
The Qualitative versus Quantitative Debate - http://writing.colostate.edu/references/research/gentrans/pop2f.cfm - good overview, but the layout is flat and difficult to skim-read
Qualitative vs Quantitative analysis - http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/monkey/ihe/linguistics/corpus3/3qual.htm - reasonable overview, with linguistics focus
Qualitative Research Designs (notes from a post-graduate research methods class)
Quantitative Research Designs (notes from a post-graduate research methods class)
Qualitative Research Exam
Quantitative Research Exam

In your own view can Millennium Development Goals assist the World to reduce poverty

NATAMBA SHADRACK
UGANDA CHRISTIAN UNVERSITY-MUKONO
snatamba@ucu.ac.ug

In your own view can Millennium Development Goals assist the World to reduce poverty?

The understanding of poverty and Millennium Development Goals
At the UN’s World Summit on Social Development (1995), the ‘Copenhagen Declaration’ described poverty as “…a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information.” When people are unable to eat, go to school, or have any access to health care, then they can be considered to be in poverty, regardless of their income. To measure poverty in any statistical way, however, more rigid definitions must be used.

According to the World Bank Organization, poverty is described as; “Poverty is hunger, poverty is lack of shelter, poverty is being sick and not being able to see a doctor, poverty is not having access to school and not knowing how to read. Poverty is not having a job, is fear for the future, living one day at a time and not having right. Poverty manifests itself as material, powerlessness, physical weakness isolation deprivation, but its causes can be found in the power relations that govern how valued resources are distributed in a society. Like most other African countries, poverty remains the greatest challenge facing the people of Uganda.

Poverty has been defined not only as lack of incomes but also as the inability to meet basic and social needs, the feeling of powerlessness to break out of the cycle of poverty, and insecurity of persons and property. In 1992 poverty rates in Uganda stood at 56% but declined to 44% in 1997, 34% in 1999/2000, then rose to 38% in 2002/2003 before falling again to 31% in 2005/2006 (PEAP 2004).
The population in Uganda is predominantly rural and agricultural based. There are significant regional disparities in poverty levels, with the highest incidence in the north of the country. More people in northern Uganda live below the poverty line (64.8%) followed by eastern region at 38.4%, Central Uganda has 19.6%, while western has 19.3% poor people. In these regions, long affected by conflict, all the MDG indicators fare very poorly, although the ongoing peace talks between the Government and the LRA rebels bring promises of peace and sustainable development for Northern Uganda at least (Uganda MDG Progress Report 2007).

The Government of Uganda has tried to address these challenges through a comprehensive national poverty reduction strategy, the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), a fundamental instrument which acts as the overarching framework for national development. The PEAP sets an ambitious target of reducing the proportion of the population living in absolute poverty from 44% in 1997 to below 10% by 2017 (PEAP 2004). On the other hand, Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are a set of time-bound and measurable goals for combating poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation, and discrimination against women. - formulated at the United Nations Millennium Summit (New York, Sept. 2000)

According to the UN Department of Public Information, the number of people living in extreme poverty worldwide, on less than one dollar a day exceeds 1.3 billion, and women are the majority (UNDPI 2003). Moreover, the focus on the quantitative measurement of a dollar a day ignores the fact that for poor people do not access affordable housing and transportation, clean and safe water and sanitation, primary health care for their families and education are essential to well-being for their families and communities (Antrobus 2005). There are multiple factors that lead to this reality, which may differ by region or locality.

Uganda in particular, is a signatory to the Millennium Declaration that was launched at the UN Summit in September 2000 and these MDGs constitute specific, measurable targets that are summarized by the following eight goals: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education; promote gender equality and empower women; reduce child mortality; improve maternal health; combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; ensure environmental sustainability; and develop a global partnership for development.

Uganda has achieved tremendous progress in the area of HIV/AIDS, poverty reduction, Universal Primary Education and gender empowerment, as well as part of goal 8 on developing partnerships for development. Income poverty levels also reduced dramatically from 56%in 1992 to 35% in 2002. It is important to note that Uganda has put in place some efforts to achieve the MDGs through the Poverty Eradication action plan (PEAP), which sums up the government’s major development plan for economic transformation and improvement in living standards. The overall goal of the PEAP is the reduction of absolute poverty to less than 10% by the year 2017.

According to the Ministry of Finance, the incidence of poverty fell from 56% in 1992, to 44% in 1997 and 35% in 2000. Uganda has done relatively well compared to many other Sub-Saharan African countries in achieving high economic growth of 6.9% per year during the 1990s and ensuring improved incomes for poor as well as better-off households. However, the impressive results have not been attained throughout the country, with places like the northern region missing out on poverty reduction “In fact, it increased from 60 to 66% between 1997 and 2000.

To achieve the MDGs by 2015 the UN Millennium Project Task Forces have identified specific sets of interventions for scaled-up investment. Many of these interventions are expected to have effects on several goals. For example, improved education leads to many benefits, including reductions in income poverty, hunger, and child mortality. Likewise meeting each goal requires integrated strategies comprising action across many different “sectors”. For example, reducing child mortality by two-thirds will not only require specific health interventions, but also improved access to water supply and sanitation to reduce diarrheal diseases; a lowering of indoor air pollution through improved cooking fuels and stoves; and improved gender equality and maternal education.

In identifying MDG interventions it is necessary to make a clear distinction between outcomes, such as hunger reduction, and areas of programmatic activity, such as raising agricultural productivity and providing nutrition. In some cases this distinction is particularly important since, for example, “health” refers to an area of programmatic activity as well as MDG outcomes. It is important to point out, that countries should carry out a goal-by-goal analysis of interventions required to meet specific MDG outcomes. Subsequently, these interventions need to be bundled into broader intervention areas that can serve as a framework for developing an operational strategy to achieve the MDGs (Sachs et al.2004).

In my own view, the MDGs can assist the world in poverty reduction and the student is going to give his analysis goal per goal using Uganda as his case study because it the best country know to him; however, references to other countries will be given.

The first MDG under analysis is to eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger and Uganda has made significant strides in reducing poverty. The population living below the poverty line reduced from 56% to 31% between 1992 and 2006. If this trend continues, prospects for achieving the income-poverty target of less than 10% by 2017 remain high. The two main indicators for monitoring hunger are the prevalence of underweight children under five years of age and the proportion of the population living below the minimum level of dietary energy consumption. Between 1995 and 2006, the proportion of underweight children reduced from 25.5% to 20.4%. The proportion of the population unable to meet the recommended food caloric intake increased from 58.7% in 1999 to 68.5% in 2006, with wide geographical divergences. The northern region reported the highest prevalence of caloric deficiency between 2002 and 2006.
However, most governments in the world and Uganda in particular have embarked on Agricultural productivity and rural infrastructure. Because three-quarters of Africa’s poor for instance live in rural areas, and an overwhelming percentage are employed in agriculture, the first area of interventions focuses on raising rural productivity in an environmentally sustainable manner. In particular, the investments in farm productivity will increase rural incomes and reduce chronic hunger, which in Africa is predominantly caused by insufficient agricultural productivity. Additional interventions for roads, power, improved cooking fuels and stoves, and water and sanitation are geared at providing a basis for higher productivity and efficiency. Investments in improved land and water management practices will help reverse environmental degradation in rural Africa and all these will be reducing poverty.

The second MDG is Universal Primary Education; which was initiated by the Government of Uganda in particular in the 1997, with the aim of increasing access to quality primary education. The government committed itself to pay school fees, provide textbooks and other instructional materials for pupils and teachers, and to meet the costs of co-curricular activities, school administration and maintenance. Although this policy was initially aimed at four children of school-going age per family, it was revised in 2002 to cover all children of school-going age.

The introduction of UPE in 1997 led to a substantial increase by 132% in gross enrollment from the pre-UPE total of 3.1 million in 1996 to 7.2 million children in 2006. In 2004, Uganda recorded a gross enrollment ratio of 104.4% and net enrollment ratio of 86%. According to the national household survey 2005/06, the net enrolment ratio was 84%, reflecting a slight decline. Uganda is, therefore, on the right path to achieving the MDG target of 100% by 2015. In addition, the gender enrollment gap in primary education has narrowed, with the proportion of girls in total enrollment rising to 49% in 2004 up from 44.2% in 1990.

From the above, one can be able to notice that increased enrollment at UPE level has significantly increased the numbers in education at all levels. The designers of UPE have paid attention to increasing girls’ completion rates. In Uganda for example, it is UPE that gave birth to Universal secondary education (USE). Therefore, it is evident that large numbers of secondary school graduates are needed to help deliver the other MDG intervention packages; for example, secondary school graduates are needed as community health workers and agricultural extension workers.

The third MDG is to improve Gender Equality and Women Empowerment; since 1990, Uganda has exercised affirmative action in favour of women with regard to admission into university and other tertiary institutions. Women applying for admission
into institutions of higher learning are awarded extra points in addition to their scores to increase their chances of gaining admission. Indeed, the policy led to significant increase in the number of women at universities. The proportion of females to the total student enrollment increased from 31% in 1993/94 to 40% in 2002 and up to 42% in 2004. In primary teacher colleges, women were 48% of the total student population in 2003 (Uganda DHS EdData Survey, 2001). At the national level, every district has an elected woman Member of Parliament. In addition, women are encouraged to compete with men for the other constituencies – nine women won parliamentary seats after contesting with men. Thus, in the current Parliament, 89 of the 310 members are women, representing 28.7% of the legislative body. This is an improvement from the 18% registered in 1995.

Despite the improvements, however, the number of women MPs still lags far behind than that of men, suggesting that the policy of affirmative action should be maintained and efforts to enhance women’s participation in politics, governance, ensuring full reproductive health rights and access to services, as well as the guarantee of equal property rights and access to work, and management be raised.
Reducing Child Mortality and Improving Maternal Mortality; the infant mortality rate, which measures child deaths before the age of one, improved to 76 deaths per 1000 live births in 2007, from 122 deaths per 1000 live births in 1991. On the other hand, the under-five mortality rate, which measures child deaths before the age of five, declined from 167 to 137 deaths per 1000 live births during the same period. Governments are trying in providing Health, nutrition, and family planning services. The aim of this is to address Africa’s extraordinary/astonishing disease burden, widespread micronutrient deficiencies children face, and the high fertility rates in women.

This package of interventions includes the medical interventions needed to improve child and maternal health; prevent the transmission of and provide treatment for HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria; improve nutrition; and provide family planning services. The two goals have an entire package of family planning and reproductive health services which are aimed at enabling a significant reduction in Africa’s very high total fertility rates by satisfying women’s desire to limit and space births. And with on doubt, the access to family planning, contraceptive services, girls’ education, women’s empowerment, and off-farm employment opportunities for young women can lead to a dramatic reduction in the total fertility rate in just a few years by helping to allow for better birth spacing and by strengthening family preferences for smaller family sizes will reduce poverty levels in the world.
Another MDG is to Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; According to the 2004-05 Uganda HIV/AIDS Sero Behavioral Survey (UHSBS), 6.4% (or slightly over 800,000 people) of adult population in Uganda are infected with HIV. Overall, there has been a declining trend of HIV infection from a peak of 18% in 1992 to the current figure. The international target is to halt, by 2015, and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS. Uganda, therefore, seems to be well on track on this target.
But despite the sustained declining trend of HIV/AIDS prevalence, it remains a significant threat to human and economic development. Over one million cumulative HIV/AIDS-related deaths have been reported since HIV/AIDS was first recognised in the country; and HIV/AIDS remains one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality in Uganda. HIV/AIDS has orphaned scores of children. Uganda has about two million orphans, 45% of whom are the result of HIV/AIDS – yet the number is rising. HIV/AIDS has created long-term impacts on the education system, which include mortality of children and teachers. The pandemic has also adversely affected labour productivity and output in all organizations through decimating the workforce, especially skilled personnel.

Malaria remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Uganda. It accounts for 52% of outpatient department attendance, and 30% of in-patient admissions. Malaria morbidity remains high and 95% of the country is still classified as endemic to the disease. The disease is responsible for 9-14% of all in-patient deaths. However, the inpatient deaths for children under-five attributed to the disease are about double at 20-23%. Increasing cases of malaria may be attributed to increased resistance to most commonly available drugs. I strongly believe that if HIV/AIDS and Malaria are dealt with by encouraging the people to change their behaviors, the population will be active in all sectors that foster development.

The second last MDG is to ensure Environmental Sustainability; there has been a positive trend in rural water coverage between 1992 and 2002, although it is still below the target of providing safe water within easy reach of 65% of the rural population by 2005 and 100% of the population by 2015. Data from the recent Ugandan National Household Survey (UNHS, 2006) and information from the Directorate of Water Department (DWD) indicate an increase in water service coverage nationwide from a little over 20% in 1991 to almost 68% in 2006. Equally, the Uganda Population and Housing Census (UPHC) data reports a rise in water service coverage from 26% in 1991 to 68% in 2002.

Uganda was initially well endowed with environmental resources, but various reports indicate persistent degradation of the country’s natural resources, namely: declining soil fertility; deforestation, particularly outside protected areas; pasture degradation; decreasing fish stocks; and water pollution caused by discharge from industries and domestic waste, among others. This degradation impacts heavily on livelihoods of the poor by constraining their ability to increase incomes and making them more vulnerable. This environmental stress is partly attributed to the recent impressive economic growth in the country. Uganda is reported to be losing its forest cover through deforestation. Various studies report estimates of varying annual deforestation rates from 550 km (UNHS, 2006) per year to 700 km2 to 2,000 km2 per year, primarily due to deforestation for agricultural land (FD, 2000; MFPED, 1994; FAO, 2000 – cited in UNDP, 2004).

The last MDG is the Global Partnership for Development; Uganda does not have specific (localized) targets for this goal. However, the PEAP is devoted entirely to the matter of developing partnerships for the realization of the development targets. Partnerships relate both to policies and mobilization of resources for financing the development process.

On the policy side, Uganda has had a stabilization and structural adjustment programme with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) since 1987. This allowed partnerships between Uganda and other donors to develop throughout the 1990s to date. Uganda’s economy is open, rule-based and quite predictable. However, it is a fragile economy that could be grossly affected by political developments. Uganda is an active participant in the New Partnership for Africa Development (NEPAD) that promotes good governance through its peer review mechanism. The peer review for Uganda that is coordinated by the National Planning Authority (NPA) at the national level and by NEPAD at a regional level is ongoing. With regard to resource mobilization for financing the development process, Uganda is placing heavy emphasis on improving domestic revenue, which in 2004/05financial year was 12.7% of GDP, way below the Sub-Saharan average of 18%.

Cross-National Infrastructure, Trade Integration, and Government Cooperation; Uganda is one of the examples the landlocked countries in sub-Saharan Africa and this means that without such countries have little chance to develop unless they have ready access to the coast through efficient, low cost infrastructure. Moreover, from a global perspective, individual African countries often present very small markets. Currently, East African countries are holding talks on how to have a Regional integration which will make possible for the five countries to exchange goods and services freely and this will also raise the interest of potential foreign investors by increasing the scope of the market accompanying a potential operating presence in East Africa. Regional integration is also important for achieving scale economies in infrastructure networks such as power grids, large-scale electricity generation, road transport, rails, and telecommunications.

Other strategies that governments have put in place in line with the Millennium development goals include; Slum upgrading and urban management; in conjunction with rural-urban migration fueled by abject/horrible rural poverty, a lack of urban jobs has led to high levels of urban poverty that are rising across much of the continent. This MDG focuses on urban infrastructure and services (electricity, transport, water and sanitation, waste disposal, and so forth) and slum upgrading. Successful urban development and the creation of viable export industries across Africa are contingent on improved access to rich countries’ markets, particularly for apparel and light manufacturing, as well as the flexibility to use targeted industrial policies as needed.

Secondly is Science, technology and innovation; these interventions focus on the mobilization of science and technology. Currently, tropical sub-Saharan Africa produces roughly twenty times fewer patents per capita than the average for the rest of the developing world. The region has only 18 scientists and engineers per million people, compared with 69 in South Asia, 76 in the Middle East, 273 in Latin America, and 903 in East Asia. Countries like Uganda have increased their investment in science by encouraging education institutions to teach sciences.

MDG Facts; 31%of the Ugandan population lives below US$1.00 per person per day, 20.4%of Ugandan children go to bed hungry , 84% of Ugandan children are enrolled in primary school, The average Ugandan woman spends 9 hours a day on care labor activities such as fetching water, firewood and caring for the sick, 13.7% of children die before their fifth birthday, 7.6% of infants die before their first birthday, For every 100,000 new mothers, 435 die while giving birth , Only 41% of births are attended by skilled personnel, 6.4% of the Ugandan population is infected with HIV/AIDS, 67% of Ugandan households have access to safe water today
In conclusion, a careful consideration to the issue of gender equality, that is, to an improved economic and social status for Africa’s women is important. To a great extent, women are the farmers, caregivers, and child raisers of Africa. They perform an incredible amount of physical labor every day merely to keep their households alive. Fetching fuel wood and water, caring for the farm animals, plowing the fields, and caring for the sick and dying in the AIDS pandemic are all tasks disproportionately borne by Africa’s women. Many of the recommended investments, such as improved access to water supply, modern cooking fuels, enhanced transport services, and improved soil nutrients, will have a special benefit for women and will target them directly.

References:

Acaye, G. (2001). Increased utilization, reduced quality: the results of cost sharing abolition in Busia. Uganda Health Bulletin 7(3) 49-53.
Consistent with Sachs et al. (2004), this paper focuses on the tropical countries of sub-Saharan Africa.
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Uganda Case Study. Internet: http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/oppguganda.pdf October 23/09
More information about the MDGs is available at www.unmillenniumproject.org and www.un.org/millenniumgoals
www.africansuntimes.com/index/ast/news/women,03.09.09